n^. w^ ! 1 &#'- m i» V^^tK, my 2^, / C 1 ! V 4*: THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY 9 \%.1 p^i p V, ^ fums ILLINOIS HISTORICAL SUmYit^iy |3tel)istoric America. The Mound Builders. Animal Effigies. The Gliff Dwellers. Ruined Cities Myths and Symbols. ANCIENT MONUMENTS AND RUINED CITIES OR The Beginnings of Architecture BY <- STEPHEN D. PERT, Ph. D. Member of the American Antiquarian Society ; Xezu England Historical and Genealogical Society : Corresponding Member American Oriental Society ; Numismatic Society, New York : Victoria Institute ; Society Biblical Archccology ; also. Editor American Antiguarian and Oriental Journal. ILLUSTRATED CHICAGO: OFFICE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN' 1904. ^i'^.7 ^^ TABLE OF CONTENTS- CHAPTER I. Age and Distribution of Monuments i CHAPTER H. The Monuments of Europe and America Compared. .. . 15 CHAPTER HI. The Earliest Home of the Human Race 31 CHAPTER IV. The Beginnings of Architecture 47 CHAPTER V. Earth and Stone Circles 59 CHAPTER VI. Boats, Roads, Bridges and Ancient Canals 75 CHAPTER VII. Coast and Maritime Structures 97 CHAPTER VIII. Origin of the Arch and Column 113 CHAPTER IX. Rock-Cut Structures and the History of Architec- ture 133 CHAPTER X. Pyramids and Palaces in America 161 CHAPTER XI. Defensive Architecture IN America 183 CHAPTER XII. Houses and House Life .... 221 CHAPTER XIII. Ethnic Style in American Architecture 245 S6 X TABLE OF CONTENTS. Page. CHAPTER XIV. Architecture OF Civilized Races of America 277 CHAPTER XV. Ancient Temple Architecture 309 CHAPTER XVI. Scenery and Architecture in Mexico 333 CHAPTER XVII. ToLTEC Cities and Toltec Civilization 357 CHAPTER XVIII, Architectural Styles in the Old and the New World 373 CHAPTER XIX. Palaces and Temples in Central America 397 CHAPTER XX. Buried Cities in Honduras 419 CHAPTER XXI. Ruined Cities in Peru 451 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Palaeolithic Cave in Bavaria 2 Kitchen Midden on the Northwest Coast 4 Chambered Cairn.— Bee-Hive Hut H Chambered Cairn at Maeshowe 12 Dolmen in Denmark. — Kits Cotty House 13 Dolmen in Peru i'4 Holed Dolmen in France. — Trilith in France 25 Roofed Dolmens 26 Mound and Earth Circle near Portsmouth, Ohio 27 Mound and Earth Circle in Great Britain 28 Earliest Map of the World V- Tree in the Maya Calendar 33 Bark Record of the Deluge 36 Constellations in the Northern Sky 39 The Calendar of the Mayas 42 Cyclopoean Wall at Athens 44 View of the Babylonian Plam 45 Primitive Houses in Tropical Lands 48 Earliest Style of Wall 5° Quarry-Dressed Stones.— Ruugh Bosses and Comb Margins. . 52 Wall with Abutments at Jerusalem < 53 Carved Posts and Rafters 56 Stonehenge Restored 64 Avebury according to Stukely 65 Part of the Circle at Stonehenye 69 Circles and Avenues at Avebury 70 Circles and Avenues at Portsmouth. Ohio 71 Concentric Orientated Circle 72 Graded Road at Piketon, Ohio 83 Covered Ways Connecting Village Enclosures 84 Covered Ways Leading to Sacrificial Place 85 Montezuma Wells 86 Irrigating Canal in Arizona 87 Canal and Reservoir at Pecos 88 Pueblo Canal 89 Aqueduct at Segovia 9° Water Basin in Mexico 9I Montezuma Meeting Cortes 94 Shell-Bordered Keys Off the Coast of Florida 103 Pile Dwellings in Manilla no Lake Dwellings ni Arch Found in South America 118 Algonquin Huts. — Conical Hut in Scotland 120 Arched Entrance to the Great Pyramid at Ghizeb 125 xii. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Wall of Tiryns, Treasury at Atreus. Lion Gateway at Mycenae. 126 Campbell's Tomb.— Arched Covering to a Sewer 127 Temple at Ephesus '28 Casa de Monjas '32 The Ancient Mazzabah i3*< '35 Rock-Cut Temple at Petra 1 36 The Fortress, or Watchtower '37 The Rock-Cut Court '38 The Main Approach '39 The Two Altars '4° The Pool, or Laver of Purification, with Court in Backgiound 141 The Square Altar '42 The Round Altar '43 Temple of Ra '47 Statues in the Interior of the Temple '49 Dolmen with Rude Columns '5° Columnar Dolmen in Europe '52 Gateways at Samos and Phigalia in Greece i55 Earliest Arch '56 Rock-Cut House and Doorway in Bashan > 58 Tomb of Midas '59 Pyramid at Sakkarah '62 The Pyramid, the Sphinx and Its Temple 164 Pyramid Mound in Ohio • • ' 7 ' Pyramid at Etowah '72 The Governor's House at Uxmal '73 Pyramid at Papantla '75 Pyramid at Izamal '7^ Temple of the Magicians '79 Panorama of the Pyramids and Palace at Uxmal 181 Champlain and the Iroquois '9^ Verazzano's Picture of the New England Coast 198 Ruins in Montezuma Canon, Utah 202 Cliff Village and Cliff House in Mancos Canon 207 F.stufa in Mancos Canon 209 Ruins on the Rio San Juan 210 Ornament over a Thllnkeet Door 215 Coat of Arms in Sumatra 216 Towers in Peru. — Staircase in Peru 217 Huts of Fishermen and Hunters at Sault St. Marie 226 A House Common Among the Sierras • 231 Plan of Mandan House .... •• • 233 Long House of the Iroquois 234 Room in a Pueblo 242 Ground Plan of an Eskimo House 249 A Thlinkeet House, with a Thunder Bird for a Totem 251 Totem Posts 252 A Haidah House 258 Totem Posts 254 The Conical Hpuie of the Wichitas 257 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii. Page. Long House of the Iroquois 258 Ancient Village Site at Walnut Bayou 259 Ancient Toltec City at Teotihuacan 25Q Ground Plan of the Nunnery at Copan 261 The Palace at Palenque 262 The Tower at Palenque . 263 Snake Column. — Column at Chichenllza • . 266 Cliff Palace at Mancos Canon 267 A Pueblo Altar. — Masked Dancers 268 View of Moqui Pueblos 260 Scenery in the Pueblo Region 270 Toltec Altar at Teotihuacan.— Toltec Costumes 272 Figures Painted on Interior Walls 273 Corner at Labna 274 Fagade of Palace at Kabah 275 Temple of Mugheir 281 Temple of Borsippa 282 Pyramid of Meydoum 283 The Pyramid of Cholula 284 Pyramid at Copan 285 Pyramids of the Sun and Moon at Teotihuacan 286 CyclopcL-an Wall in Cuzco, Peru 288 Terrace Walls in Fortress at Cuzco • 289 Section of Terraces in Fortress at Cuzco 289 Stone Cist in a Mound in Missouri • ■ • 290 Regular Masonry— Cliff-Dweller's House 290 Wall on Mesa 291 House on Island of Titicaca.— Governor's House at Uxmal. . . 292 Wall in Temple at Jerusale.m 293 Egyptian Tomb 294 Imitation of Lattice Work and Roman Key, at Casa de Monjas 294 F.lephant's Trunk and Eye and Ear Ornaments at Mitla 295 Bars with Serpent Heads, at Casa de Monjas 295 Pyramid of Xochicalco 296 Doors used as Windows 297 Gateway in Tiahuanaco 298 Tomb of the Third Pyramid 299 Cross-Section of Corridors at Uxmal.— Trefoil Arch 301 False Arch from South America 3°' Arch at Kabah 3^2 Roman Key, Clustered Column', Banded Cornice and False Arch at Labna 303 Tomb of Beni-Hassan 3^4 Ruins of Seti 30'> Temple at Quarnah. — The Memnonium 306 Column from Palenque 3°? Obelisk in Moab 3 ' - Open Air Temple at Avebury 3'3 Open Air Temple in Peru 3'4 Shintoo Temples and Buddhist Towers 3'7 xiv. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Chinese Temple 319 Chinese Temple and Stairways 320 Chinese Pagoda 321 Caracol at Mayapan 322 Symbolic Hut and Manitou Face 323 Primitive Temples in the Old World 325 The Shrine at Palenque 326 Winged Circle in Yucatan 327 Columnar Temple at Uxmal 328 Obelisks and Column at Karnak 330 Serpent Wall in Mexico 355 Toltec Gate — Fortification, near Mitla 366 Panoramic View of Teotihuacan 371 Acropolis at Athens 374 Hill Fortress in Peru 375 Pyramid of Quemada 377 Decorated Room in Phoenicia 379 Winged Lion at Ninevah. — Human Figures in Solomon Islands 380 Mythologic Column from New Zealand 381 Square Piers in Tulan, Mexico 383 CoUouade at B?.albek 3^5 Frieze Ornament at Palenque. — Arch at Tiryns 386 Tau Ornament at Palenque 386 Ruined Arch at Camalcalco 387 Colossal Head at Izamal 388 Transverse Section of Building of Double Beam Span 390 Arch at Monte Alban 39' Section of the Hall of Columns, and Apartments in the Rear. 394 Panorama of Mitla 395 Palaces and Temples at Uxmal 398, 399 Plan of Temple 400 Animal Headed Throne 401 Seated Figure with Plumed Head-Dress 402 Palace at Zayi 404 Serpent Facade at Uxmal 405 Palace with Columns at Kabah 406 Palaces and Temples at Chichen 407 Arched Ccirridor at Palenque 409 Palace Stairway at Palenque 410 Temple of the Cross 411 Tablet of the Beau Relief 412 Statue of Tlaloc 4 » 3 Sculptured Doorways of the Temple at Palenque 414 Sculptured Lintel at Lorillard 4 '6 Panorama of Copan 420 Hieroglyphic Stairway at Copan 424 Sculptured Tiger Found Beneath the City of Mexico 425 Animal Altar Found Buried in the City of Mexico 426 Sculptured Figures on Lintel at Lorillard 43° Sculptured Slab 433 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. xv. Page. Ornamented Wall of Buried City in Honduras 435 Frescoes on the Walls of a Buried Temple 436 Serpent Stairway at Palenque 443 Inca's Chair at Puno 457 Suspension Bridge Over the Rio Pampas 460 Sun Dial " Inti-Huatana,"' near Pisac 461 Gateway of Cemetery at Tiahuanaco 463 Lake Titicaca and Palace 465 Engraved Sandstone Pillars and Pavement 466 Ornamental Wall near Limatambo 467 Ruined Wall near Chimu 468 Pyramid near Nepena 470 Palace with Courts and Huaca near Truxillo 471 Burial Mound near Truxillo 472 Burial Mound and Chulpas near Lima 473 FULL PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS. Frontispiece— Columnar Temple with Greek Frets at Piedras Negras. Rude Huts of the California Indians 8 Homes of Maritime People 8 Pile-Dwellings near Borneo 9 Houses of the Dyaks Built on High Posts 9 Dolmen of Grand Island, Dolmen of Lochmariaquer, France 30 Circle at Stonehenge. — Ruined Tower 31 Excavated Remains of the Ancient Temple at Gezei 50 Excavations in the Temple Court, showing Pavement of Ur Gur 51 Lion Gateway at Mycenae 54 Obelisk of Thothmei at Kirnak 55 Dolmens of the Necropolis in France 66 Grave Circle at Mycenae 67 A Dug-oat and Savage — Prehistoric 76 Clinker-Boat from Norway— Historic 76 Boat on Northwest Coast 77 Canoe Found in a Peat Bog 88 Ancient Egyptian Boat 89 Ancient Canals in Arizona 90 Reservoir Used by the Cllff-Dwellers 91 Native Boats and Modern Steamer in Sitka 92 Mexican Boats and Spanish Brigantines 92 Roads and Bridges and Ancient Cities Described by De Solis. 93 Boats and Vessels of the Philippines. — Boats and Cannis in China 96 The Grand Canal, near Shanghai. — Foo Chow, China 97 General Plan of the Key at Marco 102 Shell Walls at Marco 103 Wooden Tablets from the Island Key 107 Native Villages in the Philippine Islands no Maritime Structures in the Caroline Islands in xvi. LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Pag*. Arched Room at Uxmal 119 Statues of Memnon in Kgypt 15° Columns in the Tomb of Beni Hassan and in the Memnonium 151 Rock-Cut Temple in India '58 The Hindoo Triad Brahma Vishnu and Siva 159 Pyramid and Palace at Uxmal 176 Temple and Pyramid at Palenque I77 Horieman Signalling Village 187 Smoke Warning '89 Native Indians Using Sign Language 191 Map of the Mississippi '93 Houses of the Cliff-Dwellers 228 Cliff Dwellmgs and Their Surroundings 238 Totem Poles and Houses on the Northwest Coast 246. 247 Tepees of the California Indians 248 Houses of the Comanches.— Houses of the Mandans 249 Cliff-Dwelling, Sonora.— Cliff- Palace in Mancos Cafion 274 Facade of the Nunnery at Chichen-Itza.— General View of the Palaces at Uxmal 275 Ruined Palace at Xkickmook— the Northwest 276 Facade with Columns, Edifice No. 5, at XKickmook, Yucatan 277 Pyramid of Gireh 300 The City of Mexico as Rebuilt by the Spaniards.— Ancient City of Mexico 322 Stonehenge by Moonlight 3^3 Tempi*: of the Tigers and El Castillo at Chichen-Itza 326 Ruined Temples at Xkichmook, Yucatan 327 Solomon's Temple at Jerusalem 33° Temples of Saturn and Vespasian at Rome -331 Temple at Olympia. Greece 332 Columnar Temple and Acropolis at Athens 334 View of Orizaba, Mexico.— Scenery in Mexico 340, 341 Pyramid of Teotihuacan.— Scenery at Teotihuacan 356, 357 San Juan Teotihuacan from the Pyramid of the Moon 360 View Looking East Along the Pathway of the Dead 394 Basement Galleries and Columnar Roof Support at Mitla 370 Panorama of Palenque.— Temple of the Sun at Palenque. 408, 409 Tablet Inside the Temple of the Cross 416 Stela at Copan 427 Sela H— Female Figure • • 439 Stela I at Copan 445 Stela N— Male Figure 446 Palace at Cuzco, Restored.— Palace at Babylon, Restored 453 INTRODUCTION. ^THE ruined cities which are spoken of in this book are * situated in the two continents of Asia and America, and are seperated from one another not only by the great seas, but by many centuries of time, for the cities of Babylonia are supposed to have been built 5,000 years be- fore Christ, while those of Central America do not date earlier than 500 years after Christ. The author, in treating of these cities, has shown that there were many rude monuments which preceded them, and that there was a growth from these, through successive stages which were parallel in all lands. A chapter is given to the description of the earliest home of the human race, and it is shown, according to the evidence furnished by recent explorations, that this was in the valley of the Tigris, in the ver}' locality where the Garden of Eden was located. This chapter is followed by another which illustrates the different stages through which architecture passed; stages which are shown in the character of the walls, as well as the buildings and decora- tions. Chapters are given on the origin of the arch and the column; on pyramids and palaces in America; on houses and house life; on the architecture of the civilized races; on ancient temples and palaces; on the Toltec cities; buried cities of Honduras and the ruined cities of Peru. A chapter is given on such common things as boats, roads, bridges, and ancient canals, which is designed to show that there was as much progress in these, as in the house architecture, or in that of palaces and temples. The object is to show the growth of architecture from its earli- est beginnings in pre-historic times, up to the date of the opening of historj^ and that parallel stages can be recog- nized in all lands In the chapter on village life and village architecture it is shown that cities, even in prehistoric times, grew out of villages,',but the village was generally^made up of a number viii INTRODUCTION. of clan residences, and that there were no such seperate habitations as in modern times. The chapter on the arch and column illustrates the laws of parallel development, but the chapter on the architecture of different districts shows the diversity of architectural styles which appeared in all lands. That there was a correlation between the scenery and the architecture is shown by a number of facts. At the same time the effect of material upon architectural styles is also manifest. The relig^ious element was, however, a very important factor in the g"rowth of architecture; this is illustrated by the chapter on ancient temples, and other chapters on ruined cities. The illustrations are drawn from a great variety of sources, and exhibit the different forms of structure which w^ere erected in all lands. It is not only in Asia that ruined cities are to be found, for they are scattered over the entire world, and they all present features which are very in- structive, as to the natural and acquired skill of the differ- ent races of the earth in erecting habitations and inventing architectural ornaments. America is as instructive in this respect as any other land, and has this advantage; that it was so widely seperated from other lands that the growth of architecture seems to have been entirely independent, and uninfluenced by the inventions of tribes and races which had emigrated, and brought with them the styles which had grown up elsewhere. The plates and cuts which have been used in the book have been taken from a variety of sources; some of them from the old Spanish writers; others from more recent travellers; a few have been reproduced from photographs taken upon the spot. Some of these may seem familiar, but all are valuable in illustrating the points made. G 2 P! o H P) r PI > H «) H > H O O 5« P! P) O P! O o e o_ (J) o •1 zr 9 n •1 O o 9 T3 •• a n a E o o O w u u u o z o s a: u X H < 111 J d. S H Q Z B The Monuments of the Stone Age. CHAPTER I. AGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE MONUMENTS. The knowledge of the Stone Age has generally been ac- quired by the study of the different implements and relics, the material of which they are composed giving the name. The distinction between the three ages has also been marked by the same means, as the abundance of stone relics gave the name to the Stone Age, the bronze relics gave their name to the Bronze Age, and the prevalence of iron, the name to the Iron Age. There are many advantages to this system which makes the material of the relics a sign of the age, and, for this reason, it has long been very popular, and useful. The advant- ages may be enumerated as follows; first, the relics may be gathered into the museums and classified according to the material, and by the means the stage of culture, which had been reached, is at once brought before the eye; second, the increase of skill in making tools, weapons, and implements, and the growth of art during the prehistoric period are plainly shown by the study of the relics of various kinds, especially if we include the various specimens of pottery and shell-work, and textile fabrics; third, another advantage is that a comparison may be made between those which are gathered from widely separated localities. It is by this means that the law of parallel development may be recognized, and the pro- gress of the different nations during the prehistoric period may be clearly seen. Now taking these advantages together, it is not at all strange that the study of the relics has been a favorite one, and that the science of archccology has so rapidly advanced. There are, however, as many advantages coming to us from the study of the monuments as from the study of the relics. They are as follows: I. The view of primitive society which is gained from the study of the monuments, is much clearer and more compre- hensive than from the study of the relics. It is true that the relics gathered in museums do show the various stages of pro- gress through which man has passed, hut thc' difficulties which have been overcome cannot be realized until we go to the field and study the environments. 2. Man's power in adapting himself to his circumstances is shown by this means. In this his superiority over all other creatures is proven. The animals, to be sure, do adapt them- selves to their circumstances, hut they are so affected by their surroundings that ultimately their own natures change; they, in fact, yield to nature, and they are modified by her. With man, the case is different; he, ex'erywhere, proves himself a conqueror and shows himself to be superior to his surround- ings. The. law of survival of the fittest is illustrated in him far more than in any of the animals. PAL^KOLITHIC CAVE IN BAVARIA. 3. The progress of man in architecture as well as in art is shown by the monuments when seen in the field. There may, indeed, be a few specimens of architecture brought from afar and gathered into the museums, and the styles of ornamenta- tion may be compared by this means, but the massiveness, the strength, and the stability of the works of man are never shown by these specimens. They are mere fragments and have no such settings as are shown where they are seen in their natural surroundings. Even the rudest specimens of man's handiwork prove at times to be very impressive, for the building or the monument, whether made of earth, or wood, or stone, shows his power of making the means serve the end, which no mere relic can shovv. 4. The chief advantage to be gathered from the study of the monuments, is that it enables us to recognize the different epochs which belong to the Stone Age. These epochs are not easily distinguished by the study of the relics, but the monu- ments differ so much in material, style, stages of progress, and degrees of finish that we may easily identify the epochs by them. The differences may be owing to the ethnic tastes, for the ethnic type is always impressed upon the structures, but the stages of progress are so marked that we may recog- nize them, even in the same region, and when we compare one locality with another, we may identify them with the epochs, and so mark subdivisions of the Stone Age. 5- The comparison of the monuments shows that nearly every people has passed through the same stages of progress before they reached the stage of civilization. We may regard the monuments as the alphabet of history, marking a period when the human race was in a state of tutelage, in fact, in that state in which a child is learning to read. The art of constructing a sentence with a child follows that of acquiring the alphabet. So the art of constructing a finished building and giving to it such architectural features as would make it either substantial and enduring, or attractive to the eye, must follow the beginnings, which are marked by these rude struc- tures. There' are many rudimentary forms which mark the progress of the prehistoric people, and are peculiar to the i:»re- historic age, some of them upon this continent, others ui)()n the eastern continent, but all of them present characteristics which are worthy of especial study. It will be the object of this volume, to describe the monu- ments of the Stone Age, but we shall devote the present chapter to a consideration of their distribution. I. We will begin with the Kitchen Middens or Shell Heaps. These, in the strict sense of the word, are not monuments, and yet they are tokens which show the presence ot man in various parts of the world, and many of them are .-^o old as to make it appropriate to consider them. The Kitchen Middens on the coast of Denmark were brought to the notice of archaeo- logists at a very early date, and may be said to have laid the foundation of modern arch;eology. Thise were found to contain the bones of animals, which are still found in the sea and forests of the region, but contained no bones of such extinct animals as have been found in the caves; nor do they even contain any bones carved with the figures of these animals. It is on this account that the Kitchen-Middens are important, for they form the connecting links between that age in which man was associated with extinct animals, and that age in which man began to domesticate the animals. They are in rcalit)- the monuments of primitive man, and of the animals with which he has been associated. It may be well to mention the animals which were associated with man when he was a trog- lodyte, or cave dweller. Sir John Lubbock has given a list of these. They are as follows: Cave bear {[■rsns spchciis), cave hyena {Hyccna spchea), cave lion {Felis spdcea), mammoth (lilcplias priuiii^cnius), mastodon {/i/cp/ias aiifiquiis), hairy rhinoceros {Rhinoceros tichonnis), hippopotamus {llippopot- aniiis majoi'), musk-ox {Ovihos moscliatiis), Irish Elk {lujiais fossilis), glutton, aurochs {liiso/i Europaus), urus {Bos pnmi- genitcs). The bones of some these animals are found in Siberia and in Arctic America, others in southern Africa; others in France and Germany, the British Isles, in Siberia, and scat- tered f'-om B^hring Straits to Texas, but none have been fOund either in the tumuli of western Europe or America, or in the Danish shellmounds or in the Swiss lake villages.* There is somethirg fascinating in the thought that these animals were known to the ancient troglodytes of Europe, and that man at his early stages of existence, had to contend with such gigantic creatures. Lubbock says that during the earlier human period, England and France seem to have been in- habited by the gigantic Irish elk, two species of elephant, and three of rhinoceros, together with the reindeer, a large bear closely resembling the grizzly bear of the Rocky Mountains, a bison scarcely distinguishable from that of the American Prairies, the musk- ox of Arctic Am erica, the lemming of the Siberian Steppes, the lion of the tropics, the hyaena of the Cape, and a hippopot- amus closely re- sembling that of the great African rivers. The animab which were found in the kitchen- middens or shell mounds of Den- kitchen midden on northwest coast. mark are such as are peculiar to the forest and the sea. They are as follows: The stag {Crrv?/s clcphas), the roedeer, the wild boar, the urus, the dog, the fox, the wolf, the marten, the otter, the porpoise, the seal, the water rat, the beaver, the wild cat, the bear, the hedgehog, the mouse, traces of a small species of ox, the aurochs (in the peat-bogs), the aquaticbirds, such as swan, ducks, and geese. The urus and the domestic ox, sheep and the domestic hog are all absent. The flint implements resemble those which are characteristics of the " coast finds." They may be classed as shellmound axes, flint-flakes, bone and horn awls, pottery, stone hammers, sling stones, very few polished axes. The total absence of meial indicates that they had no weapons except those made of wood, horn, stone and bone. The change from association with extinct animals, to that with the animals which still exist was attended with a great change on the part of man himself. Man is no longer a mere troglodyte or cave dweller, but he is a house builder and begins his career as an architect. His social condition changes greatly. He is no longer a mere shaggy creature who shares his abode with the animals, and has no desire for progress, but • An exception must be n-ade of the musk ox, the aurochs, the urus, and of the mam- moth for all these have been found so close to the relics of the stone age as to make it probable that they survived to that age. 5 he is a home-maker, and has a family for which he provides. Society ma)-, at an early stage, have been organized into clans, and the clans may have had all things in common, but, after all, the family was recognized, the hearth and home became, in a measure, sacred, and the house became a monument, not for the beast, but for humanity and all that the term implies.* Prof. Worsaae say.s: Shell mounds and coast finds are characterized by very rough flint implements, and are the remams of a much ruder and more barbarous people than that which constructed the large Stone Age tumuli, and made the beautiful weapons, etc, found in them. The chief characteristic of the shell heaps is that so many of them contain circles which show the sites where the circular huts stood. They are formed by the accumulations or the re- fuse, which must evidently have occupied a considerable period to have reached the depth which has been found in the heaps. The inhabitants have been compared to the Fuegians, who, according to Darwin, lived chiefly upon shell-fish, and were obliged constantly to change their place of residence, but they returned at intervals to the same spots, as is evident from the pile of old shells, which must often amount to some tons in weight. These heaps can be distinguished at a long distance by the bright green color of certain plants that grow on them. The wide distribution of the shell heaps has been dwelt upon by vatious authors, but the characteristics remain about the same. In Scandinavia, old hearths were brought to light, consisting of flat stones, on which were piles of cinders and fragments of wood and charcoal. In Germany, kitchen-mid- dens contain bone implements, the bones of domestic animals and numerous skeletons upon the abandoned hearths. In Portugal, shell heaps have been found fiom thirty-five to forty miles from the sea coast, sixty-five to eighty feet above the sea level, containing several different hearths, also ancient kitchen middens in the valley of the Tigris in which were found crouching skeletons, proving that here the home had become the tomb. It is evident that in all these places, man had made his fixed abode, and that the tent or the temporary shelter of the nomad had given place to the hut, but that man had not reached the agricultural state, for no seeds or grain or agricultural tools have been found in them. In America, shell mounds are numerous, and their size and extent bear witness •The changes which occurred in the fauna during the Stone Age may be learned from the fact that at the beginning there were no domestic animals, except the dog, but at the close nearly all the domestic animals were present and common. The greatest changes occurred during the time of the lake dwelUrs. The aurochs, the urus, the stag, the bear, and the wild boar were known to the early lake dwellers, for their bones have been found at Welhausen and elsewhere. The urus or Bo^ primigenius was tamed, crossed with other earlier types by the lake dwellers, and gave a variety of breeds during the Stone y\ge. The lake dwellers also had other domestic animals, one species of dog, a small ox, the horned sh«ep, the goat and the horse, though the domestic horse was not introduced till the Bronze Age. It was small and slender, with small hoofs, and resembled the Greek horse. It was not inferior to the wild horse which was hunted and eaten by the cavemen of palaolithic times. The number of animals slain by the lake dwellers is shown by the lact that five tons of bones were found at Robenhausen. There were very few domestic animals during the time of the kitchen middens, though the domestic dog was common. The majority of the bones are those of fish and of the wild animals. to the number of inhabitants that dwelt near them and the long duration of their sojourn. They all bear a close resem- blance to those of Europe. They show that the early inhabit- ants fed almost entirely on fish, their weapons, tools and pot- tery were almost identical in character, the use of metals was uncommon, and animals were of the same general character. There is this difference, however, that shell heaps in America were occupied until a late date; those on the northwest coast are still occupied. Those in Florida present every evidence of having been occupied by a people who were ac- customed to navigate the sea, and who erected their villages on the islands and ke)s which surround the coast, and have left many interesting tokens of their skill in defending their homes from the incursions of the waves as well as making the extensi\e bayous and lagoons into which the schools of fish were drixcn. The houses which stood among the shell heaps, and on these walls \\hich surrounded the lagoons, have dis- appeared; yet the character of the wooden relics which have been discovered, shows very considerable advance in imitative art as well as skill in constructing canoes, and other articles necessary to a sea-faring people. See plates. II. The Lake dwellings and Crannogs which areso numerous in Europe form a class of monuments which is very suggestive of the condition of architecture during the Stone Age. These are not so ancient as the kitchen middens, but they belong to the prehistoric period and some of them to a very early part of it. They are \-ery numerous in Switzerland, and are of two kinds, those that belong to the early Stone Age and those which belong to the Bronze Age, the difference between them consisting in the fact th^t the latter were generally built farther out in the water, and the piles which supported them were more numerous, the platforms were longer and wider, and the houses upon them were better built. The Lake-dwellers resembled the people who built the kitchen middens in that they lox'cd the water, and drew their subsistence from it largely, and had many boats in which they naxigated the lakes, but they differed from them in that they cultivated the land and raised grain and many kinds of fruit. " The discovery of these piles e.Ncited general interest, an interest which was redoubled when similar disco\-eries revealed that all the lakes of Sw'itzer- land were dotted with stations that had been built long cen- turies before in the midst of the water.--. Twenty such stations were made out on Lake Bienne, twenty-four on the Lake of Geneva, thirty on Lake Constance, forty-nine on that of Neuchatel, and others, though not so many, on Lakes Sem- pach, Morat, Mooscdorf, and Pfefifikon. In fact, more than two hundred lake stations are now known in Switzerland; and how many more may have completeh' disappeared? There'is really nothing to surprise us in the fact of build- ings over the water, as it is the safest place, especially for people who dwell in the midst of forests where wild animals are numerous, and where unseen foes may be constantly lurking. The peculiarity of pile-dwellings is that they are made of wood, and yet many of them belong to the Stone Age. It is remarkable that wooden structures which were erected during this age should have been preserved so perfectly that archae- ologist have been able to reconstruct them, and to decide as to their shape, the manner in which they were buiU., their dis- tance from shore, and the class of people who occupied them. This is owing largely to the fact that the pile-dwellings of Switzerland were buried under deep layers of mud, and so were kept from the destroying influence of the elements. It is well known that wood, when buried under soil and away from atmosphere, may remain for many ages and its fiber and character may be easily determined by the geologists and naturalists. Along with the wooden piles, many remains of fruit, grain, and woven garments, as well as stone and copper relics, were discovered in the mud in a fair degree of preservation. These have furnished a view of the domestic life and social condition of the people who dwelt in the interior of the continent of Europe in prehistoric times, and have thrown much light upon their mechanical skill and their art and architecture. The mounds, cists and stone chambers when opened con- tain the remains of bodies and relics which had been used, but the remains of the Lake Dwellings have furnished a view of the people as they were when alive, and it is easy to draw a picture of their social condition and to imagine their mode of fife. The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland may be assigned to three different periods. The first is marked by rude stone relics, coarse pottery and no ornamentation; the second, by hatchets, made of nephrite or jade, and a few copper relics; the pot- tery is finely ornamented, and has projecting handles. The third was marked by copper weapons and tools, stone ham- mers and hatchets carefully pierced, beads, necklaces, pend- ants, buttons, needles and horn combs, vases provided with handles and covered with ornaments. The distance from the shore of the ancient Lake Dwellings varied from 131 to 198 feet, the more recent, from 656 to 984 feet. Some of the pile dwel- lings were held by piles driven into the mud, others by piles which were kept in position by blocks of stone, called pack- werbauten, and by the Germans, steinbergen. The number of piles is very great, varying from 40,000 at Wangen to 100,000 at Robenhausen. The area occupied by the station varies from 1,200 to 21,000 square feet. The houses on the platforms were made of wattle and luirdlework. and sometimes of piles split in half, and the floors were of the same material and divided by thick layers of clay. These houses are the earli- est specimens of house architecture that have been found in Europe. It has, however, been shown by recent discoveries that a similar mode of life prevailed in many parts of the globe in prehistoric times, and survived into the historic days. The point which interests us at the present time, is the distribution of the pile-dwellings. They were known in early historic times as situated in the midst of the forests of Europe, and as marking the different stages of growth through which society passed in that region. Latterly, however, it has been noticed that similar structures still occupied, are scattered along the shores of the different continents and near the islands of the Pacifie, though few have yet been found on the western coasts of America. This custom of erecting houses above the water was not confined to Europe or Asia, or the prehistoric age, for there are many islands scattered over the South Pacific, near which houses are are still to be seen built above the water, specimens of which may be seen in the cuts. This custom be- came so common, that many of the houses on the islands themselves were built on high posts. This cus- tom prevails at the present time in the Philippines, in Borneo, and elsewhere. The reason for it is that it protects from floods and from reptiles. It is probable that it came originally from the Malay habit of erecting buildings over the water. In the olden time it was the custom when the first post was set in the ground to sacrifice a slave and place the body below the post, a custom which seems to have spread as far as to the Northwest coast of America. The different cuts illustrate the manner of constructing houses upon land, with posts below designed to support them, the platforms and floors being raised above the surface of the earth, very much as the platforms were placed above the sur- face of the water. Such dwellings, however, are found in tropical regions where vegetation grows rank, and where venemous reptiles are numerous. In these tropical regions the natives are very fond of the water and always feel safe, even when propelling their frail vessels far away from the land. They have invented outrig- gers and other contrivances to keep their boats from upsetting, The crannogs of Scotland and Ireland have sometimes been classed with the Lake Dwellings, though they are really artificial islands, which are connected with the land by BOAT WITH OUT-RIGGER. PILF.-DWELLINGS NEAR BORNEO. HOUSES Of THE PYAKS BUl^T pN HIGH POSTS. RUDE HUTS OF THE CALIFORNIA INDIANS. HOMES OF MARITIME PEOPLB, regular paved way formed oi pebbles which were interlaced with branches, led up to a hearth made of flat stones measuring some three feet every way. With chis house a quartz wedge and a stone chisel showing signs of service were found. Another hut, with an oak floor rested on four posts beneath a deposit of peat, twenty feet thick.* A modified form of Lake dwellings has been found off the coast of Florida. These have been referred to under the head of shell mounds, but we describe them under the head of Lake dwellings. They are really island villages or marine structures. One such village was found on the Florida keys and described by Mr. F. H. Gushing. It consisted of a series of earthwalls built around the edge of the island, which walls were protected by an immense number of conch shells. Within the wall are a number of lagoons. In the midst of the lagoons are platform mounds, arranged in terraces with graded ways built on the sides in such a manner that people might pass from their houses to their boats without being disturbed by the the waves of the sea. Mr. Gushing says: Here, at least, had been a water court, round the margains of which houses rather than landings had clustered, a veritable haven of ancient pile dwellings, safe alike from tidal wave and hurricane, within these gi- gantic rampaits of shell, where through the channel gateways to the sea, canoes might readily come and go. In places off to the side on either bank were still more of the platforms rising terrace-like but very irregularly, from the enclosures below to the foundations of great level-topped mounds, which like worn-out, elongated and truncated py- ramids loftily and imposingly crown the whole some of them to a height of nearly thirty feet above the encircling sea. The ascents to the mounds are like the ridges'below, built up wholly of shells — great conch shells chiefly— blackened by exposure for ages.f III. TheGhambered tombs form an interesting class of monu- ments. These are very numerous in Europe, but they are found in various parts of the world. The peculiarity of these tombs is that they were erected for burial purposes, but gen- erally had an open chamber constructed of stone which was connected with the outside of the mound, by a narrow passage, which was left open and would admit of the passage of bodies into the chamber after the tumulus was erected. I'he majority of these tumuli have been referred to the Stone Age, though * Some of the Lake dwellings were constructed on masses of wood consisting of five or six platforms with brush and tree-tops, called Fascines. They were really a lattice of trees and brusn. 'I'he lloor consisted of layers, of fagots and sticks laid parallel to each other, the spaces filled with clay and rushes. As in all the Lake dwellings, the space between the posts, three or four feet wide, was filled with wattlework and then coated with clay. 'I he roof was formed of layers of straw and rush. Lhe dwellings were rectangular, and were on the average, twelve feet broad, and twenty feet long. liach cottage had its own special appliances, a hearth, a millstone, sharpening stones, a loom for weaving te.vtile fabrics. Apple cores and cloth were found at Wangen. The huts which were erected by the southern Mound-builders resemble the Lake dwellings in many particulars. t For further description see my work on the " Beginnings of Architecture," p. loz. lO some of them belong to the Bronze Age. The feature which distinguishes the two is that the bodies which were buried in the Stone Age, were accompanied with weapons, implements, and ornaments of stone, bone and amber; those of the Bronze Age, * " with a variety of splendid weapons, implements, and jewels of bronze, and sometimes even jewels of gold." The tumuli of the Stone Age were frequently surrounded by circles of stone which enclosed them very much as a fence with a modern grave, making them sacred. These circles are very common throughout Great Britain and are sometimes mistaken for the larger circles which were designed for as- sembly places and for religious ceremonies. Joseph Anderson says: The circle of erect stones which marks off the grave ground from the surrounding area, are memorials of moral significance, whether they be re- garded as the marks of filial piety and family affection, or of more public sympathy and appreciation of worth. They are stone settings and are con- nected with sepulchres or graves just as were the groups and rows of stand- in? stones. The variations m the form or arrangement of stone settings are not accompanied by corresponding variations in the burial customs. The overground features were variable, but the underground phenomena were persistent. In all the instances, the circle of stone settings, whatever may be the precise form which it assumes, has been found to be the ex- ternal sign by which the burial ground is distinguished from the surround- ing area. Like the cairn, it is the visible mark of the spot of earth to which the remains of the dead have been consigned.! An interesting thought connected with all these chambered tombs is that they resemble the huts which are still occupied by the Esquimaux, and are supposed to have originated with a people who were not unlike the Esquimaux in their habits of living and modes of constructing their houses. Confirma- tory of this is the fact that the chambered tombs are found in the north Europe, where the climate is cold and where the houses of the living are still placed partly beneath the soil, and in some cases, are covered with sod, and have a passage- way similar to those of the tombs. This habit of making the home of the dead imitative of the home of the living, is very common. It extends so far that the bodies are placed in a sitting posture against the sides of the chamber. Vessels con- taining food are placed beside them, along with weapons and ornaments which were used during life, and sometimes the symbols of their religion are inscribed upon the sides of the tomb. It was a custom with these northern people, to build their houses in circular shape, and place the sleeping apart- ments on the outer edge of the circle, the open space in the centre being left for the families together, the fire always being placed in the center, with the smoke esacping through the roof. The rooms were naturally dark, but the door was always placed on the southeast side. The explanation of this is as fol- lows: In northern regions the light would dwindle early •Worsaae's Primeval Antiquities, p. 93. fSee " Scotland in Pagan Times," p. 97. Joseph Anderson. II in the afternoon and tarry late in the morning. It was important then that the door should be in the direction of the sun so that the light should shine into the room; if it did not awaken the inmates, it would shorten their night and make it easier for them to begin their work earlier in the day. It is an important fact that the chambered tombs were made in imitation of these primitive houses, the bodies bemg placed in circles, the passage way being to the southeast. CHAMBERED CAIRN. Chambered tombs are, hovvever, scattered over the globe, in Russia, in America, in China, and Japan, as well as the vari- ous parts of Europe. Different names are given to these tombs: In Russia, they are called kurgans; in Japan, pit dwellings; in America, simple mounds, without distinguishing them from other tumuli or burial mounds. Most of these are derived from the habit, which is common in the northern countries, of placing the house below the surface and building the walls and roof of timber, covering the whole with layers of earth, as the manner of placing the dead in the chambers of the tombs plainly shows. Subterranean dwellings made of rough stones laid down in regular courses with the walls converging toward the center, covered with earth are common in Ireland. They are called Picts' houses. These sometimes con- tain several rooms. They furn- ish a ver)' early type of the stone house; they differ from all the other structures, in that they are made of stone. IV. Chambered cairns are to be"-;;^^^ considered in connection with "'-^^^•r-SL^-jfi ^7.:.y^ — the chambered mounds or bee-hive hut tumuli. These belong to the Stone Age, whether found in Europe, or America, or else- where. Joseph Anderson has described those of Scotland. Some of these cairns are in the shape of boats, others in the form of animals with horn-like projections at either end; still others are in the shape which resembles the banner stones or maces which are common in America and are symbolical in their character; others are mere hemispherical heaps of stone, containing chambers within them, but always with a passage way from the surface to the chamber. They are distinguished from all varieties of sepulchral constructions by this charact- 33 ~-=^A^-- -_ 12 eristic; the compartments within the cairn have a bee-hive roof, making them resemble the so-called bee-hi\e huts. These cairns are peculiar to Scotland, though chambered mounds which contain an internal construction of stones laid up in regular shape, resembling a house with a flat roof, are common in Denmark and Sweden. There is a cairn near the great stone circle of Stennis, on the Orkneys, which contains a central chamber about fifteen feet square, to which access is provided by a passage fifty-four feet in length. The stones of which the chamber is built, are undressed slabs and blocks of a hard close-grained stone common in the region, the natural shape of the stone enabling the builders to fit them close together, and to build walls of as nearly smooth and \-ertical surfaces as if they had been hewn. The walls of the chamber are cov- ered with Runic in- scriptions which would seem to iden- tify ihem with the historic age, but Mr. Anderson maintains that "all the chamb- ered cairns of the northwestern area of Europe appear to belong to the Stone * ' The best known of these is the chambered mound of Maishowe. Ex- ternally it has not the appearance of a cairn, but of a mound, 92 feet in diameter, and 36 feet in height, surrounded by a trench 40 feet wide, and still in some parts, about 8 feet deep." The mound coxers an internal chamber 15 feet square. The doorway is built up with a pier and lintel, the roof or ceiling is vaulted, but it has the essential characteristics of other chambered cairns. Covered Avenues are often found in connection with other monuments. These subterranean galleries are sometimes 30 feet long, and their height increasing from three to nine feet. A tumulus in Finisterre has two a\enues running parallel with each other. In Sweden such avenues form communications •Scotland in Pagan Times, p. 280. Joseph Anderson. Many of the chambered cairns have been ascribed tn the Bronze Age The chamber re- presented in the cut seems to belongs to the Iron Age, as it has various Runic lines on its walls, though Prof. Anderson assigns it to the Stone Age. Age. CHAMBERED CAIRN AT MvESHOWE. 13 DOLMEN IN DENMARK. between several dolmens. Subterranean chambers are very common near Paris; some of them coxered with mounds, A covered avenue near Antequerra, Spain, is very remarkable. Twenty slabs form the walls fi\e large blocks, the roof, and these pillars ate set upright inside the chamber being reached by a passage ending in a small stone cist gallery to support the roof. y. The most interesting of all the monuments of the Stone Age are those to which the expressive name of Dolmen is gixen. The dolmens are very widely scattered, a large number of them being found in North Europe, Great Britain, Scand- inavia, others being scattered along the north coast of Africa, the west coast of Asia Minor, the coast of In- dia, the east coast of Asia, as far north as Ja- pan and China; also in various islands of the Pacific Ocean, and various parts of South America. These dolmens resemble one another in so many respects as to suggest that they were erected by the same people. By what people is unknown. This may be said, how- ever, of them that if the dolmens of pAirope are to be ascribed to the Aryan race, it would seem to be a natural conclusion that those of Japan and Peru also belong to the same race, for they are very similar in their character, and are .'•imilarly situated in their relation to the seas. There is, to be sure, no proof that the Aryan race ever reach- ed the American con- tinent. The manner of constructing the dol- mens \ aried according to the age and country to which they belonged. The P:ast Indian dolmens are said to be identical with those of Western Europe, while those that are found in Scandinavia are of a different char- acter. In Scandinavia the supports are erratic blocks: in India fragments of the rocks in the neighborhood. At Orrys Grave in the Isle of IMan, two large stones are so placed as to leave a circular space which was evidently in- tended for burial. A dolmen in Great Britain called Kits Cotty House is made of two massive slabs with an open space KITS COTTY HOUSE. 14 between them and a heavy slab at the top for a roof. The Danish dolmen was made with four t^^reat boulders which sup- ported another boulder or massi\ e ruck, which formed a roof. Such dolmens were frequently placed within a stone circle, the circle forming a sort of ring fence which made the burial place in a manner sacred. In the south of France, we see nothing but rectangulai apartments, comprised of four or five colossal stones. The dolmens of Brittany ha\e sepulchral chambers with long pas- sages leading to tliem. Those in the neighborhood of Paris have wide covered avenues with a very short entrance lobb)'. The dolmens in Peru resemble those in India and the north of P'rance, as they contain rectan- gular compart- ments, and have over them roofs formed of slabs arranged in terraces. The distribu- tion of Dolmens seems to be independent of DOLMEN IN PERU. the course of large rivers, though they are often placed in sight of the sea. In France they are a.-^sociated with alignments of standing stones. In Great Britain, there are alignments remote and separate from the dolmens. In Moab, south of Syria, there are many dolmens and many alignments which lead to cromlechs or circles of standing stones. In Japan, there are dolmens which contain massive stone coffins. In Russia there are knrgans or tombs surmounted by upright stones, and square chambers beneath massive mounds. In Algeria, the dolmens are surrounded by a double or triple circle of monoliths. The appearance of the dolmens in Peru which so much resemble those in India brings up a very in- teresting question as to who were the builders of the stone monuments. Here the dolmens are isolated and have no align- ments or standing stones connected with them. CHAPTER II THE MONUMENTS OF EUROPE AND AMERICA COMPARED. The monuments of the stone age, which are found in Europe and America, are to engage our attention in this paper. These monuments are interestinjsr, as they show how the stone age was first recognized and how it came to be established, and at the same time show how the two continents are marked by the tokens of the prehistoric races. It is remarkable that the stone age was known so much earlier in Europe than in America, and yet the resemblances between the two continents have only confirmed the conclusions before reached, and thrown new light on discoveries before made. The monuments of Europe may be said to have furnished the elements of the science, but those of America have filled up with the details. The date of the disappearance of the age was here much later than there, and yet the tokens of the two continents have constituted a series which is most interesting in its nature. We propose to take up the monuments of the stone age, and from these show how important is the history of that age in America. I. Let us first examine the monuments with a view of ascer- taining more about the distinction of the three ages. It is a remarkable fact that this arose from the study of the monu- ments, though it was soon confirmed by the study of the relics, and latterlv the relics have proved to be the most important factors. Various attempts to overthrow the distmction into ages have been made, but so far have been unsuccessful. The history of archaeology is interesting on this account. Nearly every leading principle which has once been recognized has remained and become permanent. The foundations of the science are not varying and uncertain, but are well established. It was as early as 1756 that a remarkable work appeared in Paris, written by Goguet, on the origin of law. In the preface the author says: "When I met with an almost total absence o facts in historical monuments, for the first ages, I consulted what authors tell us of the customs of savage nations. I thought that the habits of those people would furnish sure and correct information concerning the state of the first tribes." He then goes on to speak of the weapons, instruments and ornaments of copper met in certain old graves, chiefly m the north, and comes to the conclusion that copper had been used instead of iron. Later M. De Caumont perceived that stone implements had been in the earliest use, but that copper and bronze had 16 PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS. been introduced before iron. He introduced the expression "chfonological horizons" to indicate the periods in the history of art remarkable for their revolutions, or for notable changes in the forms and character of the monuments. He pointed out the following order of succession in the mode of burial: ''In the most ancient graves the body of the deceased was doubled up so as to bring the knees in contact with the chin. Later, during the bronze age, the dead were usually burned; during the iron age the body was often laid in the grave stretched at full length." These thoughts came from the study of Roman remains, and were given in lectures on monumental antiquities, it was re- served to the Scandinavians to open the proper track. Denmark and Sweden teem with antiquities. The ground is strewed with ancient barrows, which are raised like hillocks above the sur- rounding level. Roman civilization had not penetrated so far. It was an event of note when Mr. Thompson, a simple merchant who was engaged in collecting china, in 1832 published a paper on the antiquities of stone, showing that these objects had been tools and weapons of a people very like the modern savages. He shows that certain sepulchral chambers formed of huge boulders, in which the dead were deposited without being burned, contained stone implements without any traces of metal. This furnished him with his first period, which he calls the stone age. He then goes on to show that implements and weapons of bronze are found in certain graves which differ from those of the preceding period, both by their structure and by their dead having been burned. Hence he deduces a second period, which he calls a bronze age. Next comes the iron age, distinguished by a new system of burial, by the first appearance of silver, by the traces of alphabetic inscriptions, and by a pecu- liar style of ornament. Professor W. F. Nilsson, of the University of Lund, was then engaged in studying the fauna of Scandinavia, but he introduced the study of man and his origin. He applies the method, com- pares the flint inplements of the north with those of savages, points out the striking analogy between the most ancient graves in Sweden and the modern huts of the Greenlanders, with a view to prove that the abodes of the dead were imitated from the dwellings of the living. This introduced the topic, "The Successive Periods of Development," during the prehistoric ages. He, however, reaches the conclusion that each of the periods was marked by the invasion of a new race, by a fresh wave of population, inasmuch as there was an essential change in the mode of burial and a profound change in the religious system. The development was not altogether natural and unaided, but was the result of migrations. Thus the primary divisions of the prehistoric period became established. The order of progress and the law of social development were recognized by the comparison of the structures and relics which THE MONUMENTS OF EUROPE AND AMERICA. 17 were left by prehistoric races with thoseof the ruder uncivilized races known to history, a comparison which might be drawn in America much more easily than in Scandinavia or in any por- tion of Europe. Thus it was from the study of the monuments that the divi- sion of the prehistoric period into three ages occurred. This division was first made by the Scandinavians, but was confirmed by English archaeologists and has been adopted by all. It is a division which is recognized in all countries, even in America Here the iron age is, to be sure, very distinct from the two preceding ages, as it was introduced by the white settlers after the time of the discovery. But there is an advantage in this, for the presence of iron is always a sure indication that the tokens belong to the historic rather than the prehistoric period. The real division in America is into the bronze age, the polished stone age and the rude stone age, leaving out all consideration of iron. The monuments, however, belong mainly to the stone age as such — that is, the polished stone age, and may be re- garded as distinctive of the age. It was, on the contrary, characteristic of the paleolithic age that there were no monuments in it, at least no monuments which have been perpetuated. There may indeed have beert habitations in that age, but they were either such abodes as- could be furnished by caves or were the mere brush heaps re- sembling those erected in our day by the California Indians, the rudest of all structures. Some have, indeed, claimed that the huts of the Eskimos properly represent the paleolithic abodes, but this is uncertain. It is possible that they were ice huts, but if so they were very perishable. • This was, probably, during the preglacial period, a period when man may have been without the use of fire, and so ex- ceedingly rude as to be unable to erect any structure which would be worthy the name of monument. We are safe in saymg that there were no structures in that age which became monuments. It is, then, to the neolithic age that the majority of the monuments in America belong. These may, indeed, have been left by an uncivilized race, ana probably were erected subsequent to the glacial period, but they are scattered over the continent in every part of it. Geographically consid- sidered, we may assign the most of them to the temperate zone, placing the monuments of the bronze age in the torrid zone and those which resemble the works of the paleolithic age in the arctic zone, and yet the geographical is not the division which is so distinctive as is the chronological and the geolog- ical, the paleolithic age having belonged to a horizon lower down and farther back than the neolithic, the bronze age having furnished the best and the latest monuments. This age appeared among the civilized races of the Southwest, in Central America and Peru, but it was by no means spread 18 PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS. over the continent, as it was over Europe. The bronze age appeared in America very much as it appeared in Chaldea and the regions of the East. It was in connection with an archi- tecture of a somewhat advanced type that it appeared, an architecture in which the corbel'ed arch, the staged tower (the zikkurat), the pyramid with its terraces, the palace with its seragUo (that is, the salon for official receptions), the khan or the dependencies of the palace, the kitchens and slave lodgings, were the chief elements; a style of architecture which was far in advance ot anything which was found in Europe during the prehistoric times. It might have naturally been expected that bronze would have appeared among the Mound-builders or the Pueblos, for these occupy about the same position in the scale of progress that the lake-dwellers in Europe do. But there was lacking here the aid of a civilization which was near and which could by migration, or by transmitted influence, effect the art and architectuje ot the people. Copper was used by the Mound-builders, but bronze was unknown. The isolation of the continent prevented the bronze age from being introduced among the Mound-builders. It was evidently introduced among the lake-dwellers of Europe by migration. The migrations in America worked an opposite effect. Instead of bringing a wave of civilization and progress, it brought in a wave of savagery and produced a decline. The earliest monu- ments were the most elaborate and show the highest stage of civilization. This is the case in all parts of the continent. The mound-builders of the early period were more advanced than the Indian tribes who followed them. The Pueblos and cliff- dwelle'rs were a semi-civilized people, but the tribes which drove them away were savages, hunters who had come in from the regions of the North. The civilized races made progress, but those who followed them were savages, and were surprisingly degraded. The absence of the bronze from the cliff-dwellings was owing to their distance from civilized and historic countries, for bronze even in Europe was a product of civilization and really belongs to the historic period, though it was introduced, like domestic animals, among the uncivilized races, and prevailed in great quantities in prehistoric times. This subject of migration is an interesting one. iWorsaat says of the stone age in the North: "What people it was that showed the road to the more highly developed races is just as unknown as the time of their arrival." Of the later stone age he says: "The period was long, the new culture alien, and its dissemination gradual. That the stone age culture was able to reach such a pitch in the North can not be explained solely by its longer duration, or by the richness and excellence of material for ftint work. In reference to the rise and spread of the bronze age, the facts point more and more toward the ancient culture THE MONUMENTS OF EUROPE AND AMERICA. 19 lands in Asia, and to India in particular, with it ■ rich veins of copper and tin, as the most probable &tarting place ior the bronze culture." Prof. Worsaae recognized a North Asiatic age of bronze, but thinks that this can not be regarded as the starling point tor the bronze culture which appeared in Scan- dinavia and the rest of Europe. The bronze age in the south- east of Europe was originally introduced by immigration, but it flowed into Europe bv two main routes, ^'he southern followed the coast lands, Greece and Italv, Africa, Spain, France and the British Isles; the other followed the basin of the Dan- ube into the heart of Europe, taking Hungary, Switzerland and Germany in its course, and from Germany to Scandinavia. The age of stone preceded the bronze, as whole skeletons with stone age objects are buried at the basement of the graves, while in the sides and summit are burnt bodies with objects ot bronze. As to the migration of the American races we have no real information. That it came mainly by way of Behring Strait is only an inference, it has not been proved. In fact, in later years, the drift of opinion has been in favor of another route, or, per- haps, several routes, Behring Straits being one, Labrador, Greenland and Iceland another, the roast of Florida and West Indies another, Mexico and the Polynesian Islands still another. There are some who take the ground that there was no immi- fifralion ; the races were all autochthonous. Hellwald says : "The procession of migratory races was in the long axis of the con- tinent, from north to south. The migrating tribes always tended towards southerly regions. That America was already inhabited before this great migration, and in many parts was possessed of an ancient civilization, admits of no doubt. If we compare it with that of the present Indians of America, the original culture was much more advanced The question might arise whether tribes in a state of civilization w ere the first im- migrants, or were the existing races in a lower grade because they had declined from a former civilized condition. The theory of a civilizing migration seems to be opposed by most writers; at least it is denied that civilization was introduced simultane- ously with migration, though it is acknowledged by many that the germs of civilization may have been carried with the migra- tory tribes." The populations of the copper age of America, which had already dawned in the region of the lakes, may have followed the valleys of the Ohio and Mississippi, and directed their steps to the present States of Louisiana and Texas. Still this wide region of the Mississippi Valley, the proper home of the Mound builders, preserved no trace of immigration or emigration. The shifting of place among the tribes is manifest, but no long line of migration. The Asiatic hordes moved slowly during the early periods of history. It may be that the stream, set in motion, may have ultimately reached this conti- 20 PREHISTORIC >IONUMENTS. nent, and poured itself from the north over the region which had been previously occupied by another race. This would account for the decline, and for the super-position of the skele- tons and the strata of relics being in the reverse order. II. The distinction between the paleolithic and neolithic age is to be recognized in America. Let us, then, take up this distinction as the especial object of our study. The paleolithic age found man at the outset a mere homeless, house- less savage, scarcel}' above the condition of the beast. He dwelt in caves, protected himself with a rude booth or found shelter near a rock or tree, and possibly dug a hole in the ground, and burrowed there. But nothing that was worth}' the name of structure or monument was erected by him. He did not even lift up a stone which would serve as a monument, nor did he place a mound upon the surface, so that there are no monuments o( him. Later in the paleolithic age he resorted to caves, and there left the traces of his presence in relics of various kinds. He seems to have been acquainted with fire, and had some skill in drawing pictures upon bone and rock. The latest stage was that in which he erected a hut by the sea coast, and threw out the bones and shells which accumulated around the hut, leaving rings in the heap to show the place of his habitation; this is the nearest approach to architecture which the paleolithic man reached. The neolithic age introduced a new epoch. There was a great change, both in the condition of man and in his sur- roundings. It would seem almost as it the change was one of climate and of natural environments. Certainly, so far as the animals are concerned, there was a great contrast. The bones of the extinct animals, such as the mastodon, the cave bear, the rhinoceros and the elephant, are never found associated with the neolithic relics. On the other hand, the neolithic structures, such as dolmens, menhirs, stone graves, hut rings, lodge circles, must have been built by a race very different from the paleo- lithic man. He was undoubtly a wild hunter, who was clad in skins, with the hair side out, and who was shaggy in his ap- pearance; he may have contended with the mastodon and the cave bear, and he had only the rude spearhead, which belongs to the paleolithic type, for his weapon. When, however, these animals disappeared, he either disappeared himself, or else changed his habits in almost every particular. It vvould seem as if a new race had been constructed, for the whole horizon has changed. There are now habitations which are placed upon the surface of the earth, and within those habitations are tools, utensils and weapons, which are as different as the surround- ings. This change was probably brought on b}- a variety of causes. Everything is correlated in the prehistoric world. Man may have been either a hunter or fisherman ; he may have dwelt upon the sea coast or in the interior; he ma}^ have inhab- ited either of the continents; yet when he moved from the cave THE MONUMENTS OF EUROPE AND AMERICA. 21 to'the constructed house, he came into a new social condition. The date is not known, but the change is easily recognized. There is a new phase of social life, and everything partook of it. The skill of man was exercised not onl}- upon his architec- ture, but in the department of art, the habitation and the tools changing about the same time. We cannot say which was first, though judging from the ease with which savages take up the use of new weapons and tools which have been introduced by the more civilized race, we should say that the change from the paleolithic to the neolithic relics must have been anterior to that of the change from the cave to the constructed hut. The gradual progress might have produced an improvement in axes and adzes before they were used in cutting down trees or goug- ing out canoes. But we imagine that necessity was in this case the mother of invention. Domestic utensils probabl}' came into use about the same time that cooking over the fire was prac- ticed, and so we infer that pottery was introduced about the same time tha hut began to be built. The garments also changed when the change in habitations and tools had occurred. The discovery of bone needles and awls and stone drills and knives, as well as the presence of perforated tablets and other ornaments of dress, would indicate this. The change from the cave to the hut involved a new method of defense. We accordingly find weapons of a different kind, spearheads, ar- rows, dirks, knives, showing that the warrior was well equipped. We do not know as there was any fortification erected at this time, for there are savages in America who found their safety in flight, and who rarely undertook to build a fortifica- tion. Still we regard it as characteristic of the neolithic age that man was then able to provide means of defense for himself; there was also a change in the religious condition of the people. It is said that during the paleolithic age there was much skill in depicting the animals, as in imitating their shapes, but the symbolic figures which would make animal totems are very rare. In the neolithic age there is a great abundance of totems. Nearly all of the animal figures which are found de- picted, inscribed upon bone or carved or moulded, are totemic in their character and ma}' be regarded as symbols of the prim- itive faith. These are the characteristics of the neolithic age. They are characteristics which are ffiven by the relics, orna- ments, garments, art products, as well as the structures of the age. We are, however, only to describe the structures. We therefore proceed with the description of these. III. This brings us to the monuments of the stone age in America. The division of the antiquities of America has been made on the basis of the material of the relics. It can be, however, made on another basis, namely, on the material of the monu- ments. We have alreadv elsewhere shown that the monuments 22 PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS. of America are to be classified according to the geographical location, those of the norih being mainly of perishable material, wood, ice, bone, bark. As a result we find very lew prehistoric structures here. Those of the Mississippi valley were constructed mainly of earth, though occasionally a few rude stone walls and mounds were found among them. Those of the interior, in the great plateau of the west, were of stone, unwrought, laid up in walls, and of adobe, but with no wrought stone and no lime mortar among them. Those of the south were mainly of wrought stone, laid in cement, with many carved ornaments and sculptured pillars. Thus it appears that the material of the structures, as well as the location, furnishes an index to us of the grade of culture which prevailed, so that we do not need to rely upon the material of the relics. These might be regarded as the subdivisions of the stone age, though they would lengthen out the stone age, and make it overlap the bronze in one direc- tion and the paleolithic or rude stone in the other. This is the main point which we make. I. We take up first the structures which are presented by the kitchen middens and shell heaps. These are supposed to have been the earliest and most primitive, the rudest of all. It has been, to be sure, a matter of discussion whether the shell heaps antedated the burial mounds and sepulchral constructions, but on this point most of the archaeologists are now agreed. Prof. Worsage and Proi. Steenstrup were appointed to examine the shell heaps on the coast of Denmark. They made their report. One of them claimed that the shell heaps marked a period which preceded that of the dolmens, cromlechs and other stone monuments. The other maintained that they were con- temporaneous. The same discussion might be carried on at the present time in reference to the shell heaps on the coasts of North America. It would not be a question whether they be- longed to the stone age, but whether they do not mark an early part of this age. In reference to some of them there would be no dispute, but in reference to others there would be a variety of opinion. Sir John Lubbock examined the shell heaps on the coast of Denmark. He speaks with the highest praise of both gentlemen, but reaches the conclusion that shell heaps or kitchen middens represent a definite period in the history of the country and are probably referable to the early part of the neolithic stone age. He says none of the large polished axes have been found in the kitchen middens. The absence of metal indicates that they had not yet any weapons except those made of wood, stone, horn and bone. Prof. Steenstrup admits that the stone implements from shell mounds are ruder than those from the tumuli, but the frequent remains of the seal and wild ox, and the cuts which are so common in the bones, indicate the use of polished implements, and so he regards the shell heaps as mark- ing the camping place for fishermen, but belonging to the same THE MONUMENTS OF EUROPE AND AMERICA. 23 age as the tumuli. The kitchen middens were not mere summer quarters. The ancient fishermen resided on these spots at least two thirds of the year. The same is true of the shell heaps in this country. There are shell heaps in Florida which cover immense tracts, and which reach great heights. They are sit- uated along the coast, showing that they were not merely the result of the accummulation of debris, but were often built in ranges, so as to give protection to the inhabitants from high tides and at the same time furnish an airy and sightly place for residence. The examination of the shell heaps of Florida was first made by Prof Wyman, of the Peabody Museum. They have been frequently visited since that time. Dr. D. G. Brinton has de- scribed those at New Smyrna. He says the turtle mound is thirty feet high, and is composed altogether of separate oyster shells. A remarkable mound on Crystal River is in the shape of a truncated cone, for y feet in height, the summit thirty feet in diameter, the sides nearly perpendicular. The great size of some of these accumulations may furnish some conception of the length of time required for their gradual accretion. The one at the mouth of the Altamaha River covers ten acres of ground, and contains about 80,000 cubic yards. Mr. S. T. Walker has described those on Tampa Bay; he says they extend along the shore for several hundred feet, and are from fifteen to twenty feet in height. Here the archaeologist may read the history of the people, as the geologist reads the history of the earth in the sections presented. The peculiarily of these shell heaps is that human bones are found in them, while very few bones are found in the kitchen middens of Denmark. Canals have been found in these shell heaps, giving an indi- cation that the people who built them navigated the sea coast, and then crossed the narrow neck of land which separated the coast from the river. It is supposed, also, that there were land- ing places for canoes, and that the shell heaps were raised above the surface, both for the sake of safety and comfort. We give cuts of some of these shell mounds. One of them has a road- way running from the level to the summit. See Fig. i. The dimensions of this mound are as follows: It was about five feet high; entire length one hundred and fifty feet; breadth seven- ty-five feet; the roadway is twenty feet wide; there is a ditch or excavation at one end which enters the mound. A roadway was traced from the mound into a hummock several hundred yards. Another mound, twelve hundred feet long and twenty feet high, has a beautiful inclined road up its west side. The turtle-shaped mound is the most remarkable. It is about five feel high, and is surrounded by ditches; lengttiwise of the ditches are walls left at the natural level of the land, which correspond to the flippers of the turtle. The head and tail are projections from the mound itself. The entire length of the 24 PREHISTORIC MONIMENTS. body is one hundred and eight feet, the width sixty-six feer. It is remarkable that carved rehcs resembhnjr this mound in shape have been found in the shell heaps of Florida.* These observations confirm what we have said about the characteristics of the neolithic age. They show that totemism or symbolism prevailed extensively The shell heaps of the California coast differ from these. These contain extensive graves. It is supposed that ihay were temporary residences, as layers of sand recur at short intervals, as ifthey were visited at stated seasons. Still, there are traces of aboriginal settlements, since the graves are numerous and many skeletons have been exhumed. Many relics, also, have been taken out — beautiful serpentine pipes, spear-heads of obsidian, a bronze cup filled with red paint, mortars of various kinds, shell ornaments, mica pots, ear ornaments, beads, lance-heads, etc. The shell heaps of the northwest coast were much ruder than these. These, however, contained some remarkable relics, showing that they were of modern origin. Prof. E. L. Morse says: "That these de- posits are not all of the same age is certain. It can be safely assumed that they were made long before the advent of the European, for the natives were then living in the shell age, and were forming depositories of shell in the same way. These depositories have been described as occurring in England, Scotland, Ireland, France, east and west coast of the United States, Australia, Tasmania and the Malay archipelrgo, show- ing that the stone age prevailed extensivel}' over the globe. The hut rings which are found in the mounds of Florida, and the artificial shapes of the mounds themselves, bring them under the department of architecture; but the rude relics and animal remains found in the shell heaps of Scandinavia, Japan, as well as of the northwest coast, show that some of them are to be treated under the most primitive department of archaeology." Kitchen middens are sometimes classed with the paleolithic and sometimes with the neolithic age. This illustrates a point.. There was a time when the fishermtn were so ex- tremely rude and low in their social condition that they were incapable of erecting a structure which required any mechani- cal skill. They either dwelt in caves and resorted to the sea coast during the summer months, or they made for themselves shelters of the rudest kind. We can hardly regard them as equal *Shell heaps with bone implements and rude pottery are common in Florida.— Wyman, Peabody report, Vol. II. Shell heaps with steatite mortars have been dis- oovered in California. One in contra Costa County was more than a mile long.— Bancroft, Vol. IV, p.709 Peabody report, 1878, Shellheaps in Oregon. A steatite stone quarry with 2000 stone implements and hammers was found in Pennsylvania. The Kteatite pots in the shell heaps of California and Oregon^may have been taken from the quarry in Santa Catalina Islands, see Peabody report for 1878. Shell heaps with wooden hammers have been found in Vancouver's Island. Bancroft Vol. IV p. 737. On the coast of Brazil are shell heaps which present evidence of cannibalism.— Na- daillac, p. 53. Fresh water shell heaps are common in the valley of the Mississippi, Report of A. A. A.'S. 1873. These are.to be distinguishedllrom the ash pits found by Prof, Putnam in Ohio, and yet they contain the debris of camps, as do the shell heaps elsewhere. THE MONUMENTS OF EUR )PE AND AMERICA. 25 Fig. lo the house-builders in their condition, for the house-builders belonged to the neolithic age.* To have had neolithic weapons and tools, and build houses would imply an advanced stage of art and architecture. The Eskimos build ice huts which are arched, resembling the conical stone huts which are found in Ireland, and which belong to the stone age. They also make long passages to their huts, which remind us of the passage- wavs to the dolmens of France, which are also neolithic struc- tures. In winter the Eskimos build huts from whale bones and walrus bones, laid in tiers, the same as the ice, and placed upon a foundation of stone. This shows that the Eskimos had very considerable skill in the art of constructing houses, a skill which probably represents that which was exercised by the early neolithic people of Europe and of America. Our conclusion is that the structures which were erected in the midst of the shell heaps were similar to these, and that they belonged to the neolithic age, but were perhaps the earliest structures of that age. 2. We now turn to the barrows and mounds which are found on this continent, with the design of instituting a comparison between them and the so-called barrows of Europe. We place them together, for they constitute a second class of monumental structures, and illustrate a second division of the new stone age. It is remarkable that in the barrows there are so many stone chambers which were evidently designed for funereal purposes. These chambers are rude specimens of funereal architecture, but they show how sacred and important this kind of architecture was in the stone age. The mounds of America do not often contain chambers like these, but, on the other hand, are solid throughout, either stratified, with layers of sand, earth and stone, or built as simple heaps of earth, without strat- ification, and sometimes without relics or remains. The barrows of Europe are supposed to contain the oldest or earliest of all funereal structures, and are on this account worth)'- of especial study. The architecture of the prehistoric seems in this respect to have resembled that of the historic age. The most an- cient in each are tombs. This is an interesting fact. Tombs are found in the pyramids of Egypt, the earliest of historic monu- ments. They are also contained in the barrows of Europe, the ♦The Callfornians connect a tradition with a shell heap near San Francisco of the Hohgates, "seven mythical strangers,] who were the first to build houses. These Flrangers were changed to stars, but the shell heaps are left as signs of tlieir former ri'Sidence.— Bancroft, N'ol. Ill, p. 177. 26 PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS. Fig. 6. earliest of the prehistoric monuments. There may indeed have been structures which were occupied by the living at a time pre- ceding these, but as these were built of perishable material they soon disappeared. The significance of the megalithic tombs is, however, the greater on this account. They are supposed to have been built after the pattern of the houses which have per- ished, and so show what kind of houses were built durmg that age. Lubbock says: "No one can compare the plan of a Scandinavian passage grave to any drawing of an Eskimo snow house without being struck with the great simi- larity existing between them." Prof. Nils- son says that the winter dwellings of the Kamskatkans are very similar; that these are a copy of the dwelling house. The an- cient inhabitants of Scandinavia, unable to imagine a future separate from the present, buried the house with its owner, and the grave was literally the dwelling of the dead. When a great man died he was placed in his favorite seat, food and drink were arranged before him, his weapons were placed by his side, his house was closed and the door cov- ered up, sometimes, however, to be opened again when his wife or children joined him in the land of spirits. The entrances or doors to dolmens are usually made by omitting one of the up- right supports, but is closed by inserting a moveable stone. There are dolmens with a different entrance. A hole is cut through the door, or closing stone, sometimes round and sometimes oval. Sometimes the hole for entrance is cut out of the bot- tom of the closing stone. Figs. .{»i 4 and 5. Some dolmens have >^«a an entrance cut one half out of 5#^i ance like the guillotine, and ''n-I "' " - -— ^- so giving the name of guillo- "^"^'••''.li'i. -^ tme to the tomb Spp Fio- x-Z'-"*- -^-^ '_•«■ ^^ -, Iherearea few dolmens which have doors with side '^*^"^' posts or piers and lintels, and with the superincumbent stone sloping like the roof of a modern house^ See Fig. 7. Thomas Wilson says it is usual, if not universal, to find a vestibule corridor or covered way leading from the entrance of the principal chamber to the circumference of the tumulus. Some of these corridors are forty to fifty feet in length. He says many of the dolmens are covered with earth. All may have been once so covered. The following cuts will illustrate the manner in which these dolmens are built. Figs. 8 and 9. THE MONUMENTS OF EUROPE AND AMERICA. 27 These dolmens were found in France. The village in sight is that of Lochmariaquer ; beyond is the gulf of Mordihan. The road from hence to Carnac is lined with monuments of prehis- toric times resembling these. There are no such dolmens in America. The nearest approach to them is found in the cham- bered mounds of Missouri, but these lack the passage-ways or corridors. A distinction was formerly drawn between the long barrows and short barrows, as if they indicated different races and periods of time, but this has been done away. The passage graves and stone chambers within the mounds may, however, be distinguished from the stratified mounds and burials without stone cists, a distinction which will apply to the mounds of America as well as of Europe. The reason assigned for the FUj. 10— Slowicl and Earth Circle near Portsmouth, Ohio. construction of passage graves is that there might be a succes- sion of burials without a destruction of the tomb. The opening to the mouth of the passage would be so near the outside of the mound that the stone could be removed and new bodies placed within the tomb. There is one point which comes up in connection with the mounds of America and the barrows of Great Britain. Some ofthese were associated with earth circles (Figs. lo and 1 1), show- ing that the people who erected the barrows were a military or war-like people, and that they erected these as a means of defense. In this respect they are supposed to have been one degree in advance of the people who dwelt among the kitchen middens, who were probably fishermen. The same thought is conveyed by the mounds found in the United States. Many of these mounds were evidently used as signal stations, showing that the people were both hunters and warriors, as the same mound would serve for observatories to watch the approach of 28 PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS. game, and to notice the presence of the enemj'. The earth circles in England are attended with standing stones. In this country there are no standing stones. The ditch, however, is inside the circle as in Europe. It is supposed that the circles in both countries were designed for fortifications, though some had evidently a religious use. The religious significance of these structures is perhaps more important than the military use. It is possible that there was a symbolism concealed in the very space of a circle, the circle being the symbol of the sun. It is possible, also, that the standing stones found in Europe symbol- ize serpent worship exactly as certain earth walls and mounds symbolize it in this country. Altar mounds are numerous in the United States. These show that the religious sentiment was a powerful factor in the erection of mounds. There are no altar mounds in Europe, but there are many who suppose that the dolmens were both altars and burial places, the table-stone above the chamber serving for an altar and the chamber serving as the burial olace for the dead. Fig. 1]. — Mound and Earth Circle in Great Britain. There is another thought which arises here. We have noticed that the kitchen middens of Europe are much ruder than the chambered barrows, and have spoken of the caves as partially filling the gap. In America, however, the gap is not so wide and is partially filled by the stratified mounds, these mounds be- ing of a lower grade of architecture than the chambered barrows but of a higher grade than the shell heaps. It was during the mound-building period that the so-called copper age appeared. This age has not been assigned any definite position, and in fact some even deny that there was any such age in America. It remains then for those who are studymg the science in America to say what that age was. The comparison between the Euro- pean and the American mounds helps us to do this. The Mound-builders represent the copper age. The Mound-builders were both hunters and agriculturists. They erected mounds for burial, but they also built earth walls for defense. They evidently lived in villages, while they cultivated the land surrounding them. They were also house-builders, and at times built coun- cil-houses and temples in the midst of their villages. They were sun-worshippers, and at times built altars and presented offerings THE MONUMENTS OF EUROPE AND AMERICA. 29 to the sun divinity. The use of copper may indeed have been only incidental to their life, the abundance of copper being a reason why they used it rather than stone, and it also better served their purposes. Still we use the term as significant of a cult, and place the copper age in the midst of the stone age, making the Mound-builders to represent its rank in the column. We give a series of cuts to show the resemblance between the mounds of America and the barrows of Europe. It will be no- ticed that some of the mounds are surrounded by earth circles with a ditch inside of the circle. Some have thought these to have been symbolic structures — symbols of the sun; others con- sider them mere burial places. There are many such mounds in the United States. Some of them contain altars, and all have a sacred or religious character. We call atttention to the resem- blance between these circular enclosures. Was it because sun- worship existed that these rings or circles were built, or was there some actual contact between the two in the two continents. The standing stones of Great Britain are wanting in America; but so far as the form of the earth circles and the passage-ways to the circles can be said to resemble one another in one country, they may also be said to resemble one another in both countries. The altar mounds are, to be sure, wanting in Eu- rope, and yet if we take the stone tables to have been altars, we find the same use for the barrows as for the mounds. They cov- ered up and preserved the altars as well as the burying places. We here call attention to the circles, at Averbury, in England, and the earth circle in Portsmouth, Ohio. We do not say that these works were symbolic, and yet the religious use is acknowl- edged by all and the resemblances are also striking. 3, This brings us to the stone structures in Europe and Amer- ica. We must treat these briefly. The rude stone monuments have been described as if they constituted a very important factor in the prehistoric architecture of Europe. The rude stone structures are, however, very numerous in America. These are more properly ruins than monuments, and yet they belong to the same age and represent a similar stage of progress with the so-called monuments. We mention the cliff-dwellings and pueb- los of the west, as we do the standing stones of France and the cromlechs of England, placing them side by side, since they all represent the last subdivision of the so-called stone age. De- scriptions of these works are found in works on archaeology, and yet the resemblances are worthy of our study. The standing stones at Carnac, called alignments, have, to be sure, no repre- sentativeSjin America, and the Pueblos have none in Europe. Yet it may be noticed that the same skill which wrought one class was also exhibited in the other, so that a department may be erected for both. The uses of the pueblos, with their many storied rooms, and with their sacred estufas or sweat houses and 30 PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS. their plazas or courts are indeed better known than are the uses of the standing stones. The uses of the cliff dwellings with their retreats in the sides of the rocks, and their lookout towers on the tops of the same, are also perhaps better known than are the uses of the stone circles of Avebury or Stone Henge. Yet with all the mystery which hangs about the European monuments, we do not hesitate to class them together. The mode of life of the two people was, to be sure, in great contrast, since the means of subsistence in one case was gained by irri- gation, and in the other by agriculture of the ordinary kind, de- fense being secured in very different ways in the two countries, yet so far as skill in architecture or general culture and the prevalence of a certain religious cult are concerned we should place them all on the same level. It is possible, too, that original design of the European monuments may yet be learned from the study of these American structures, and so we call attention to the two as worthy of close attention. We call attention to the cuts as illustrating this point. We call attention to the cuts, Figs. 12 and 13, These repre- sent the circular structures of the two continents; the one, the standing stones of Great Britain, the other the ruined towers of Colorado and New Mexico. The standing stones were never buildings, and yet they may have been places of worship or of religious assembly. The towers, however, were once buildings, but buildings of a singular kind. They may have been lookout towers, but more likely were sweat houses or sacred places of assembly where sacred rites were observed. These towers are sometimes found on the mesas above the so-called cliff-dwellings and sometimes on the bottom land beneath the cliff-dwellings, and sometimes isolated and separate from all other structures. The significance of the circle in both cases is that sun-worship prevailed in both continents. Some of the towers have three concentric walls, as in the cut; others, however, have only two, but with partitions between the walls, dividing the tower into one large central apartment, with several cells surrounding this. The standing stones at Stone Henge were also surrounded by a circle of earth", with a ditch inside of it. They seem to have had a sacred assembly place in the center, in the midst of which was the so-called altar. This was the penetralia of the place. The analogies of the two are, then, very striking, especially when we consider the distance which separated them and the difference in the surround- ings of the two. The subject is certainly worthy of serious study, as they may be expressive of a wide spread cult. Fifl. S.—JJohiien of Grtind Island, l-'runc . Fiij'incii of L'M'lLinariaqncr,' France. *- '-^'^Di-^^gS 5"3i^ /^/'.(/ 12.— Circle at Stone Heng". ^;^€i SCO '3 r":^>..^ ;,'''"/I^* i^i'gr. l.i.— Ruined Tower. CHAPTER Hi. THE EARLIEST HOME OF THE HyMAN RACp. ' There are two views of the earliest home of the human race, and of the locality from which all the migrations started, one of which has come from the study of prehistoric archae- ology, and the other, from the study of history, traditions and architectural remains. According to the first view, the starting point was some- where in Europe, and the caves were the earliest habitations; according to the other view, it was, in southern Asia. In fact, man's earliest home was in 'a region where the climate was mild, and where vegetation was abundant and every thing seemed like a garden. This is the traditionary view, and one which in reality comes from the sacred scriptures; but it is also the view which is receiving the assent of a large number of scientific men, and is confirmed by the discoveries that have been recently made in the valley of the Tigris. It is remark- able that, after the effort had been made to prove that the starting point was in Europe and that the migrations went in the other direction, at last, the original view held by the ancients, and which was given by the sacred scriptures, should be set back again into its place, and we should find that the spirit of inspiration has given to us the correct account. It may be held by some that this only proves the modern date of the Books of Moses, and that the Bible only reflects the advanced thought of the people who lived, perhaps, even after the time of the exile. There are, however, so many corre- spondences between the scripture account and the ancient mythologies, that we are led to believe that this view of the early condition of mankind and the locality where the first pair had their home, really embodied the facts which were known- to all the nations of the East. i - This is the pomt to which we will call attention, but in do- ing so, we shall draw the proofs from many sources. I. According to the Greek mythologists and poets there" was a garden called the " Garden of Hesperides," and it con-"- tained a tree which bore golden apples and was guarded by the dog Cerberus and the many-headed dragon, although the loca- tion of the garden is not definitely given. ■ Various theories have been advanced in reference to this point, for according to". some, it was in the remote western part of Africa, in Lybia, or on Mt. Atlas; according to others, it was in Cyrenaica, the 82 table-land of Africa; and according to still others, it was in the extreme north, and answered to the "sacred mountain" of the Hindus, Mt. Meru, which is spoken of by Isaiah. According to the Greeks it was called Arcadia and was situated in a mountain region, resembling that of Greece itself, for it was full of never-failing springs and rich pastures, and was occu- pied by a race who never abandoned the pastoral life, but lived in the simplest manner, leadmg their flocks and herds through the rich valleys and up the mountain heights, and alvyays retaining their innocence and simplicity. It is to be noticed that this story of the garden and the tree and the serpent is found in the myths and symbols ot all nations, even those which are situated in the far north ot Europe, and the inteiior of America and the islands of the sea. This is difficult to account EARLIEST MAP OF THE WORLD. for, unless there was a common starting point for all the races of the earth, and the same story was known to the ancestors of all. It is a strange coincidence that in Central America one of the most prominent symbols contained in the ancient codices, is that of a tree, with a bar across its branches, making it resemble a cross, while two persons are seated at the foot of the tree— male and female— who seem to represent our first parents. The story connected with them does not refer to the Garden of Eden, a'nd yet the picture is plain, and the signi- ficance of the symbols is quite suggestive. This would not be so strange, if there was any historic connection; especially such a connection as is found between the Scandinavian mythology and the story of the Garden of Edtn. The Scandinavians be- longed to the Indo-European race. But here is a nation 33 Situated in Central America which was entirely separate and distinct from all historic nations, and yet the symbol of the tree is as plain in its significance as the story itself, and can be accounted for only on the ground of a transmission from dis- tant regions and a survival throughout all changes. II. Another confirmation is gained from the study of the ancient traditions of the East. These have been transmitted ■>tr up kitiioux^ aRCAL lETOItT 18R3 PL. n TUB TADLF.AU DES D.\CaD tlCSTOBED. TREE IN THE MAYA CALENDAR.* to us by the various historic nations, — the Phcenicians, Assyri- ans, Babylonians, Hebrews and Greeks, — and echoes of them by the tribes of the American aborigines. I. The event which is the most prominent in the traditions of the world, is the Deluge. This seems to have been local, though it was ?o early that the tradition of it was preserved by all of the nations of the East before they seperated. Each nation has a different version of the story — the Babylonians, • rhe chart is taken from Calendar of the Mayas, and represents the yearly sacrifices. The doti and circles at the corners eive the number of days in the weeks; the circles in th - baml around the tree, the number of days in the month; the figures at the side show the four sacri- fices; these contain .^lso symbols of the elements, the eaith, air, fire, and water. The seated figures, beneath the tree, represent the Divinities, and yet they are significant of the first pair. 34 the Hebrews, the Greeks, the Chinese, the North American Indians, the inhabitants of Polynesia— but at the same time one that contains the same facts. According to the Hebrew tradition, the ark was filled with the various animals— domestic and wild,— Noah and his three sons and their families, and after fortv davs of rain, it lodged among the mountains of Armenia;' the animals were let out, and Noah made sacrifices and. with his household, began to people the world anew. The Tower of Babel, according to the tradition, was erected by the descendants of Noah; but the confusion of tongues put an end to the work, and the people were scattered to the various parts of the world. It is worthy of notice that recent discoveries have brought to light the fact that there were two or three great nations represented at this time in the valley of the Tigris, the Accadians, who were the ancestors of the great Turanian race; the Mineans, who were, perhaps, the representatives of the Papuan and Hamitic races, and the Hebrews, who represented the Semitic race; and the explana- tion of the event, is that the nations spoke different languages, and the confusion of tongues was owing to this circumstance. A supposition is that the Accadians went northward, and ulti- mately established the great Chinese Empire; the Mineans went westward and became the earliest inhabitants of Arabia-; but a large proportion of the Semitics remained in the valley and established the Babylonian and Assyrian Empires. The story of the Flood is not confined to the scriptures, or to mythology, for a tablet was discovered in the depths of a pyramid in Babylonia, by Mr. George Smith, which gives the Babylonian version written in the cuneiform language, and evi- dently very ancient. This Babylonian version lacks the sim- plicity and beauty of the scripture record, and yet it contains the same facts. The Hebrew narrative makes no definite merr- tion of Noah's home, but it harmonizes with the statements of the Babylonian story, and admits the possibility that Baby< Ionia was the locality. There is one other strange confirmav tion: it is found in the fact that mountains surround the val- lev of the Tigris, those in Armenia being the nearest. The accounts disagree as to the landing place of the vessel, and yet the cuneiform narrative confirms the Hebrew story. It. may be objected that the art of ship building had not reached so great perfection, as to admit of the building of so large a vessel, but all the accounts agree in substance on this point, and make it apparent that ship building, as well as pyramid building, had become common. The Babylonian seals give the idea that wheeled chariots were in use at a very early date, though after the time of the Deluge, for the god Marduk, who was the chief divinity of the Babylonians, is represented as riding in his wheel chariot, with a spear in his hand, and charging at the dragon. 2. There are other traditions which confirm this same point. 35 The most interesting one, is that concerning the contest between the two brothers, Cain and Abel. This has been explained as referring to the contest between the shep- herds and the agriculturists, this interpretation being sustained by the fact that Cain went out and built a city. It is singular that the story of the two brothers is common in all parts of the world. In some places it represents the contest between the east and the west; in others, it represents the conflict between the various elements, and is a personification of the Nature powers. The building and founding of the city of Rome is attended with the story of the two brothers, the younger of which was slain by the older. It is a remarkable fact that a hut-urn is preserved at Rome, which represents the shepherd's hut m which the two brothers found refuge after they had been nursed by the wolf in the forest. These are reminders of the three conditions of society: the wild life, the shepherd life, and the agricultural life; all of which were followed by the found- ing and building of cities. Tradition everywhere proves that there Was as slow progress of society through different stages in the East, as may be found in the West. The history of mankind has everywhere been attended by the same results. There are certain details about the story of the Flood and of the confusion of tongues, which are difficult to account for, vet the event is confirmed by the monuments, as well as by tradi- tion. First, the very tower, or temple, called Ziggurat, has been discovered at Nippur, on which tradition shows the con- fusion of tongues occurred. Second, the tablets, which show domestic oxen. at the watering troughs, and horses attached to war chariots, show that domestic animals were common in Babylonia at an early date. Third, the introduction of horses into Egypt, and ot horses and oxen, and fruits and grains, among the lake-dwellings proves that they were introduced from the East. Fourth, the fact that the valley of the Tigris is the only place where the remains of the Stone Age have not been found, proves that civilization first prevailed here. Fifth, the fact that the story of the ark has been preserved among nearly all the nations of the earth, proves that their start- ing point was in this traditionary spot, though the details of the^ story varies, according to the locality and the social condition of the people who hold it. It is remarkable that even in America, the story of the Flood is very prevalent, but it varies among the different tribes. The wild tribes of the east havs one version; the civilized tribes of the southwest have another, and the tribes of the northwest, still another, each of thejn having their own method of perpetuating the story. 3, It is interesting on this account to examine the picture- writing and the symbols still in existence among the American tribes, and see how closely the story contained in them corre- 86 l^r 5.0. 2.3. // l^feK spends to that which comes to us from the far P^ast. The Iro- quois and Dela- wares have the bark record called the "Red Score," upon which is record- ed the story of Creation, the Temptation, the Deluge, the Rescue, or sur- vival from the Deluge, and the repeopling of the earth, in which the chief divinity called Manabozho serves the chief part. This has been explained in the book on "Myths and Symbols," and a cut which repre- sents a part of this bark record is given here, so that the reader may study it, and see how it corresponds with the story given in the scriptures; the imager)' being just such as an uncultivated people would be likely to un- ci erstand and appreciate. The same story is contained in the Calendar Stone of Mexico. In 87 the center of this stone we find symbols representing the four periods of Creation; one of which was after the world was destroyed by the flood. There are other picto-graphs in America, which represent Noah and his family in the ark, at least, such is the interpretation given to the pictures by those who are familiar with them. There are many other traditions of the Flood which furnish proofs that the different races must have once started from this central point. The Phoenicians, the Greeks, and the Hindus, all have the same story. III. There are many other proofs of this same point, among which we mention the origin of the different alphabets. It appears that the Babylonians had one style of writing— the cuneiform; the Egyptians had two styles— the hieroglyphic and the demotic; the Phoenicians, the Hebrews and the Greeks had the phonetic alphabet; the Chinese had a monosyllabic style of writing, each character containing a word, made up of a combination of symbols or characters. The Phoenician alpha- bet is the one most relied upon to illustrate the progress of the civilization of the world, and especially the progress of archi- tecture in the Old World. In this alphabet we find picto- graphs which represent the earliest form of the house, as the letter B, or Beth, signifies house, and the very shape of the primitive house or tent, with the open door and round roof, is given by it. The letter D, or Daleth, signifies the door, and represents the triangular opening to a tent. The two letters here illustrate the difference between the door of the tent and the door of the house. The letter E, with its bars horizontal and upright, represents the window of a house. The Phoenici- ans are said to have borrowed their alphabet from the Egypt- ians and transmitted it to the Hebrews, though Cadmus is said to have been the inventor of the alphabet. The shape, how- ever, of the Greek and Hebrew letters show that they were invented after the people had become familiar with the differ- ent parts of a house, and after they had given up the hut for the frame house. There are pictures of houses on the rocks of Babylonia, which show that the earliest houses there, were conical in shape, and resembled the conical huts which are still common among thewanderingtribesof Tartars and other Northern people. They also resemble the conical huts found among the North Ameri- can Indians; whereas, the house which is represented by the Phoenician alphabet, is that which was common among the Egyptians at a very early date, for it had a hemispherical roof and straight walls. All early houses were constructed out The cut on the preceding page represents the story of Creation under the figure of an arch, which is followed by a picture of the Creator and the divisions of the land and sky, the creation of the sun. moon and stars; afterw.ird the cr^ration of man and woman An evil Manitou ap- pears under the figure ot a serpent. The first pair are at first happy, but the serpent tempts them and brings a great flood Finally. Mauabozho, the strong white one, appears and brings deliverance; the waier ran off the earth, the lakes were at reit, all was silent, and the mighty snake departed. See "Red Score," by D G Brinton. 88 of bent poles, or of adobe, but the houses of the Babylonians were constructed of sun-dried brick, and with walls of im- mense thickness. IV. We arc not confined, however, to mere tradition or myth- ology for our proof that the first home of the human race was in this traditionary spot, for it is written on the very sky itself. It is noticeable that the map of the heavens was familiar to the nations of the East, and this map in itself conveys facts and truths which correspond to the traditions. The Greeks recog- nized Hercules strangling the serpents; the giant Bootes, with his club; Draco, the dragon; Cygnus, the swan, as well as the Great Bear and Little Bear. The Egyptians recognized the crocodile and the hippopotamus; also Horus strangling the crocodile, and the constellation of the thigh, as well as that of the lion. These constellations were known to all the tribes of the North, and it was a common custom for the people scat- tered over Europe, Asia and Africa to recognize the same strange figures in the sky. Mr. Norman Lockyer has written of this, and has from it made an argument in favor of the ex- treme antiquity of the pyramids of Egypt. The stars in Draco were circumpolar about 5000 B. C, but at 2000 B. C. the stars were in Ursa Major, and this accounts for the difference between the Egyptian and the ordinary constellations. The Star map, representing the precessional movement of the celestial pole from 4000 B. C. to 2000 B. C., is given in his work on the "Dawn of Astronomy." It is a remarkable fact that the North American Indians recognize the constellation of the Bear, and they have a story connected with it, which corresponds to their own habits of life. They do not recognize the great Serpent in the sky, and yet they do recognize the revolution of the Bear around a point in the sky, and make much of this fact. They also recognize the Pleiades, and regulate their feasts and religious ceremonies by its position in the sky. We may conclude, then, that even the people who settled this continent, and who have no knowledge of any other continent and no memory of events which are so familiar to us all, through our knowledge of the scriptures and our familiarity with the ancient traditions, were in reality emigrants from the far East and had their first home in the same place that our ancestors had. There is another argument furnished by the geography of the heavens. It appears that in the northern sky the constel- lations represent objects which are familiar to the savages, viz : the bear and the serpent, but those in the equatorial belt, ob- jects which are familiar to civilized people, the lyre, the chair, the bull and the sickle. The only exception is that Hercules, Bootes and the harp appear in the northern sky. This would indicate that the races separated before the constellations were known. Mr. Norman Lockyer says:. '.'In all countries — India, China, 39 Babylonia and Ep^ypt — they use the girdle of the stars to repre- sent the stations through which the sun passed in his course, but this was after astronomy had become famih'ar to the peo- ple. Babylonia being the first or earliest place where the stars were studied. In Egypt the constellations embraced such figures as the crocodile, the hippopotamus and the lion, all of which were wild animals; but they represent boats as sailing over the sky, thus indicating that civilization dawned there at an early date." No such constellations were known to the natives of America, and would not have been understood, if they were known. On the contrary, the very constellations which are familiar to all have a story connected with them, which is sug- CONSThLLATlONS IN THE NORTHERN SKY. gestive of the hunter life which prevailed on this continent. The Indiins recognize the figure of a bear, but do not recog- nize the figure of the Dipper, or the handle of the Dipper; but, on the other hand, they see a little cluster of stars which represents a kettle, and the story is that a little boy attended the hunter, with a kettle in his hand, expecting that the chase would be successful. ; V. The history of the East is very suggestive of the early condition of mankind, as well as of the first starting point. It has been an impression with many that history began with civilization highly developed at the start. It is, how- ever, an impression that is not sustained by scripture, or by science. The picture given by the first five chapters of Genesis is one of pristine innocence. The Garden of Edert ^vas the 40 abode of the first pair, who dwelt at ease, amid the beauties of Nature, and had every want supplied with labor and without care. It is the same picture which is given by poetry, and reminds us of the Arcadia of the poets. The picture exter- nally corresponds to the sc(;es which abounded in the valley of the Tigris. The streams surrounding the garden, the trees within it, and the mild climate and abundance of fruit and vegetation which formally prevailed in this region, made it a paradise. The growth of cities and extension of empire developed the resources of the country, but increased the labor and trials of people, as depotism took the place of liberty, liberty, which was the natural inheritance of mankind. The digging of canals and the use of irrigation developed the resources of the country, but increased the toils of the common people, and made the difference between the poor and the rich, the ruled and the rulers, very marked. There was the same senti- ment, which afterward prevailed in Peru, and to a certain ex- tent in Central America, that the rulers were of divine offspring, and so were entitled to their power and distinction, though when the people *,ame under the influence of idolatry and the training of the priests, there grew a submission which ulti- mately became very abject servitude. It was the influence of religion which led the people to erect their great pyramids and place the Shrine to the Sun Divinity on the summit, and to give power to the priests and to the kings to erect their great palaces, and to dwell apart from the people. It was exactly the same condition which pre- vailed on this continent at the time of its discovery. The cities became very numerous, and all of them were marked by pyramids and by palaces, many of them surrounded by high walls and wide gates leading in every direction. The evidence is that irrigation was practised, and the entire valley of the Tigris was filled with a teeming population, but all divided into tetrarchies. The four cities mentioned by the scriptures, are Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneh. Two of these, namely, Erech and Calneh have been identified with the ruins of Warkur and Nippur. Mugheir has been identified as Ur, which was the birth- place of Abraham. It was the southern most of all the great cities, and was originally a sea port. Like its three sisters, it was the great seat of that form of idolatry which marks the Chaldean period; the moon being worshipped at Ur; the sun at Ellasar, and Bel, or Beltis, at Calneh and Erech, as we learn from the ruined temples. Of the northern tetrapolis, the ruins have been discovered in the mound of Birs Nimrud of Sip- para, at Nippur. The pyramids which are found in this region, are signs that idolatry prevailed, for the great Chaldean towers were temples devoted to the sun, moon and the heavenly bodies. The number of stories at Borsippa was seven, corre- 41 spending to the sun, moon, and five planets. They were dis- tinguished by different colors. The first, black; the second, orange; the third, red; the fourth, golden; the fifth, yellow; the sixth, blue; the seventh, silver. What stages of architecture preceded these great cities is now unknown, still the probability is that there was a growth before the days of the Flood, which enabled the survivors to begin where the Antidiluvians left off, for there are pictures of huts on the rocks clustered together, showing that the common people were still retaining the primitive habits and modes of life, after the ruling classes had reached such a high degree of power. VI. The chronological system also proves the same point. Among the ancient races there were two or three different methods of dividing the year. One of these was apparently adopted by the hunter tribes; another, by the agriculturists, and a third by those who dwelt in cities, andvvho erected the temples and pyramids, each one having a different system of astronomy, or rather, astrology. In the primitive or prehistoric age, the polar star, or the north star, was the center around \vhich the heavenly bodies revolved, and it was supposed to be the dwelling place of the creating power. It was at this time that cities were built up in the valley of the Tigris and the Nile and nations began to appear in China, in India, in Arabia, in North Africa on the borders of the Euxine. in the islands of the Mediterranean, and as far away as the North Sea. There were also cities in America, and tribes in Central America, and tribes scattered through the interior of the con- tinent, each one of which had a calendar system v hich was best suited to its own purposes. The study of comparative chronology has not gone far enough for us to c raw any final conclustio'ns, but we may say this, that there was no unity among the nations, for each nation had priests, or medicine men, who were learned in the science of astrology, and who gave direction to the religious ceremonies of the people; even controlled the employments, and laid out the cities according to the system which had been adopted; that the pyramids and temples were oriented toward the different points, and the whole arrangement of the buildings, and even the ornamenta- tion of the buildings, were subservient to the calendar system. What is more, each nation and tribe had a special number, which was sacred. The Babylonians taking No 7; the Chinese, No. 9; the North American' Indians, No. 4; the Zunis and the Pueblo tribes, Nos. 13, 7 and 6; the Central Americans, Nos. 4. 5, 13 and 20. The study of these different numbers and the systems connected with'thcm is very suggestive, for it throws great li^ht upon the architecture which arose, end upon the religious customs which prevailed. It appears that all the ancient cities, many of which ae in ruins at the present time, were laid out according to a system, 42 which involved the study of the heavens, as well as of the earth, and the temples were generally the center of the city, the palaces were near the temples. The number of the cities which were grouped together was the result of the religious system. This furnishes an explanation of the tetrarchy which prexailed in Babylonia, and of the orientation of the pyramids there. It furnishes an explanation of the pyramids of Egypt, and especially of the orientation of the temples there. Many of them were used almost as telescopes to catch the rays of the sun at its rising at the time of the solstices, very much as THE CALENDAR OF THE MAYAS. the ancient temple of Stonehenge was. We may say also that the ancient cities of America were arranged according to the calendar system. The temple was the chief and central object, and all the roads led to it. A theory has been advanced by Mr. F. W. Hewitt in refer- ence to the temples in Central America and the calendar sys- * The cat represents the four serpents which guarded the sacred year, each serpent being marked by thirteen rings, to symbolize the months. The figures inside of th: squares symbol- izing the activities of the seasons, and other figures representing the various symbols of the days, the whole making fifty-two years, which was a sacred cycle, the face of the sun in center symbolizing the great Divinity. Thare is, certainly, no chart or series of symbols, either in India or China, or any other part of the world, resembling it, and yet the idea may have been borrowed from the East. * 48 tem which prevailed there, to the effect that it embodied the same system which existed in India; as the division of the year into thirteen months, which were composed of four weeks of five days each, was exactly the same as that which prevailed in India. This is exceedingly doubtful, still it is suggestive, and may lead to a further study of the ruined cities of both India and America. . One thing we are to notice, viz.: that the serpent symbol embodied the calendar system, for the four serpents arranged around the face and divided into thirteen parts, symbolized the months and days of the year. The calendar stone was so full of symbols, that it became a study for the priests, for all fhe employments of the people were directed by it. The sacred year consisted of thirteen months of twenty days each, the months being divided into four weeks of five days each; the secular year of eighteen months of twenty days. Now, it is remarkable that there are symbols or picto-graphs cf trees and serpents and many other objects, which plainly represent the calendar system, and these remind us very much of symbols which prevailed in the far East. Mr. F. W. Hewitt maintains that these symbols were derived from the Hindus, and contain many of the figures and symbols which are common in India, and claims that the Hindu year was divided into months and weeks of the same length as in America, thirteen months forming the calendar year, each divided into four weeks of five days each. The linear measure was derived from the counting of the fingers on the hands, aqd the length of the hand, fingers and arms, a system which prevailed also in America. VII. The growth of architecture in the Stone Age is worthy of study in this connection. It has been found that the Stone Age prevailed in Egypt, but that it was marked by the graves of a very rude people, who buried their dead in a circular pit which they surrounded by pottery vessels, but a' new age was introduced by a race which erected their tombs in the shape of a house, and called it a " Mastabah." The pyra- mids were really nothing more or less than a great series of Mastabahs. In Greece there was a Stone Age which continued' almost up to the time of Homer. During this age the form of structure of the house was that of a cone, and the form was perpetuated in the tomb of the Mycaenian kings. It is notice- able that in all other lands the same form of the hut marked the Stone Age, and was preserved in the tombs of the kings. It is by this means that we may trace the growth of archi-> tecture from its early beginnings. It is remarkable that this kind of conical hut can be put together with the hands without any tools, and without any other support than is secured by the walls, which come together at a point. This is in itself an evidence that the various civil- ized races grew up out of a rude and primitive condition. It / 44 was by the improvement of tools and the advancement of civilization that the change came, when the nations began to build perpendicular walls, and place upon the top of them timber which should serve as a support for the roof, though the form of the roof might vary according to locality, climate and other circumstances. In a climate like that of Egypt, the roof was likely to be flat. In a climate like that of Greece, with a peak at the top and a projection at the bottom, and held together by its own weight. The next stage would be to place a cornice on the eaves, and an entablature at the front. There was, however, no new mechanical principle involved. The material might vary, the walls might be made of adobe or sun-dried brick, but it was because they were built upright, that they served as supports to the roof. There came, however, ultimately a new principle, for there was the use of the pier and lintel in making the doorway, or opening in the wall. There came also the use of the column in ^,i.^-. supporting the roof, "*^^ and the use of the arch in supporting the heavy weight which might be produced by the size of the build- ings and by the change of material. Now, the fact that in Babylonia we find the earliest buildings, which are constructed after the pattern of a modern house, with upright walls and openings in the walls, and large rooms within, covered with roofs, and columns to support the roofs, and arches to support the weight, shows that the starting point of architecture was in reality in this very region, which is described as the home of the earliest civilization. We may take a sweep of all the countries surrounding this center, and we shall not find any place where architecture dates back to an earlier period. On the other hand, we find the ruined cities everywhere presenting the same general principles. Schliemann discovered at Hissarlik a succession of cities; F. W. Bliss found at Lachish a similar succession; Hilprecht found at Nippur that it was a mound made up of many cities; Arthur Evans found the same evidence of a succession of population, and a number of cities built upon the ruins of one another; but in all cases there seemed to have been certain ele- ments introduced from some other source. So far as has been ascertained the starting point was from the valley of the Tigris. There were, to be sure, at Athens cyclopoean walls, which are CYCLOPCEAN WALL AT ATHENS. 45 not found in the valley of the Tigris. There was a number of walls constructed from burned brick and from stone at Troy. But in each one of these layers of the mounds we may read the history of many cities which lie in ruins, and think of the succession of people which appeared in this region; yet if we go in either direction from these centers, we soon come to those rude stone monuments which remind us of what the con- dition of society once was in these distant localities. The same lesson is taught us in our own country, for we need only to go from the great centers to the frontier to find architecture in its primitive stage. But when we go back to the first home of mankind in the valley of the Tigris, and examine the cities which have been brought to light from the depths of the great mounds which have so long remained silent, and find the evi- VIEW OF THE BABYLONIAN PLAIN. dence of writing in the libraries which have been opened to view, we are astonished at the record and are convinced that the starting point is just where tradition and scripture have placed it. These facts show that the earliest home of civilization was in the southern part of the Asiatic continent and near the mouth of the Tigris, a region which is surrounded on all sides by mountains, but was connected by seas and rivers with other parts of the world. Civilization appeared first among the Accadians and the Semitics, and some hold that there was a third race, called the Mineans, in the Arabian desert. The contest which occurred between the Accadians and Semitics at the Tower of Babel, led the first-mentioned to take their de- parture, and they migrated northward and established what proved to be the Chinese civilization on the rivers which flow into the Pacific. 46 . . There was, to be sure, a race in Africa which grew up Into a high grade of civilization, and established a great empire on the'banks of the Nile, which was entirely different from the Babylonian, and in contrast with the preceding race, whose graves have been recently found; the mountains of Arabia upon the one side protecting them from the attacks of the wild tribes, and the deserts of Africa also protecting them on the othex side. There arose, however, a race which belonged to the Semitic stock, who became the navigators and traders of the world, namely, the Phoenicians. They never originated a civilization of their own, but they transmitted it from the edst to the west. They, as Mr. A. H. Keane has shown in his remarkable book called "The Land of Ophir," sailed along the coast of Asia, up the gulf of Suez, and finally reached the Mediterranean. It is supposed by some that they opened the mines which have been so recently discovered in Mashonaland and Rhodesia, and established trading stations on the east coast of the Gulf of Suez. This can be said, at least, a Himyaritic settlement was established in southern Arabia long before the days of the Queen of Sheba. Mr. Keane thinks that the Phoenicians gave their art to Crete and Cyprus, and that this served as the beginnmg of the Mycaenian civilization. ' The same point is illustrated by the history of civilization everywhere. It was not because certain nations had power to overcome all obstacles, and by their own unaided efforts were able to rise to a high condition, but because their situation was favorable, and especially because the effects of civilization, which had arisen elsewhere, were transmitted to them. Such, at least, was the case with all the civilized nations of the Old World. And we see no reason for making the civilized nations of the New World an exception, even if the evidence of trans- mission has not as yet been given. The conclusion which we reach from the study of these various facts, is that the earliest home of the human race was in the very place where tradition and the scriptures have shown it to have been, but it was owing to the separation of the tribes and nations of the earth at a very early date, and through migrations from this very spot, that the world was peopled. What effect this fact may have upon the opinion which mav be formed in reference to the first peopiTng of this continent and the rise of civilization here, will depend upon the preconceived theories; yet the fact that there are so many resemblances between the customs, traditions, habits and styles which pre- vailed in the far East, and especiall)- in the ruined cities dis- covered there, and those which are to be found here, cannot fail to gi\'e interest to this study. CHAPTER IV THE BEGINNINGS OF ARCHITECTURE. We have spoken in a previous chapter of the earliest home of the human race, and ha\e shown that it was in the valle\- of the Tigris and Euphrates, the very localities spoken of in the Scriptures and referred to in the traditions prevalent in the East. We are to devote this chapter to the study of the be- ginnings of architecture, but shall go back to this very locality for illustrations of the subject. It is a remarkable fact that the earliest mention of structures of any kind, is that which concerns the tree, the gateway, the altar and the city, all of which are mentioned in the story of the Garden of Eden. It may, indeed, seem to be a mere assumption when we say that these form the elements which appeared in the earliest architecture of the world, but such is the opinion of the best writers upon the subject, and it has been confirmed, by many recent discoveries. It was formerly the opinion that the cave was the earliest abode of man, and that the rude hut took its place, and following this was the house, with its doorways and walls and roof; but as we go back to the earliest days we find that primitive man lived in a warm climate, and dwelt among the trees and found food and shelter from the objects of Nature, and only as he wandered from his first home did he find it necessary to resort to caves. The date of his departure from this traditional locality is some- what uncertain, but recent discoveries have carried back the beginnings of civilization so early, that manj^ have concluded the historic period here preceded the prehistoric elsewhere, and that men were building cities in the central region, while they were dwelling in caves in other and distant localities. This does not prove there was no Stone Age in this region, but, on the contrary, it carries back the date of the age indefinitely, and makes us to realize something as to the antiquity of man upon the earth. In reference to the earliest condition of man in this locality, we have no actual information, except that which comes to us through tradition; but judging from the nature of the soil, and the character of the climate, and the resources of the country, we may conclude that here man first abandoned the wild state, came into the practice of agriculture, and began the custom of erecting villages, which ultimately grew into cities, and became thoroughly civilized. Such is the opinion of those who have visited the region and have noticed the wonderful fertility of the soil and the ease with which it was irrigated, and the evi- 48 • dence of a numerous population, which once inhabited the region; making it worthy of the name of " Paradise," though at present desolation reigns supreme. The same opinion is expressed by those who have studied the ruins of the various cities which once stood beside the banks of these historic rivers, for they find that there has been a succession of races and peoples for many thousands of years. What the earliest structures were remains somewhat un- certain, but it seems that man, even in the state of nature, was endowed with certain qualities which enabled him to under- stand and to use the mechanical principles, for this progress is manifest in the various structures which embody these princi- ples, the earliest specimens of which were probably erected in the valley of the Tigris. Th2se may have been made out of wood, resembling those which are still occupied by people in various parts PRIMITIVE HOUSES IN TROPICAL LANDS.* of the world, of which illustrations are given in the cut. The rude huts, which were the primitive habitations of man, be- came more pretentious, and these were followed by the great cities which are mentioned in history. The same mechanical principles were found in the city that were embodied in the house, for every city had a wall corresponding to the wall of the house, a gateway corresponding to the doorway of the house, and a temple corresponding to the hearth in a house. The house may have been a mere hut made of poles, reeds, •This cut represents the huts which are o z I— t s (/I o u u P-. u H U X H Z o < U X 51 mind, but afterward the stones which involved more mechanical skill and showed a higher finish, were placed in the walls. The same thing is true of the house and the temple — size, rather than finish, was the standard of excellence. In Babylonia the first or earliest buildings which have been discovered were made of sun-burned brick, but were made up of walls of immense thickness, and contained drains, some of which were arched. The mechanical skill required to construct these walls and the drains was far bej'ond that which was exercised in the Stone Age. The testimony of all the ex- plorers is to the same effect. Their dates may have been exaggerated, but the facts remain the same. The cities of Babylonia show that a fair degree of civilization had been reached. With clay as a building material, so readily moulded into any desired shape and capable of being baked by the action of the sun, without the use of fire, it was almost as easy to build a large house as a small one, by the addition of rooms and wings, and stories, which differentiated the house from the palace, and the palace from the temple, and served to make hugeness the index of grandeur. The best specimens of archi- tecture of Babylonia and Assyria, as well as Egypt, were characterized by such hugeness, but without any external beauty. The cyclopoean masonry was used in the Argive fortresses, as well as the gate^vays of Mycenae, and was earlier than the well-dressed blocks so common at Troy, but it is supposed that the massive clay walls discovered by the American explorers at Nippur were much earlier, for they date back as far as 4500 B. C, which was anterior to the building of the pyramids. The American explorers also found pavements at Nippur, which dated back to pre Sargonic times; one of which was called the pavement of Naram Sin. It was situated about six or eight feet above the present level of the desert. Mr. Haynes pene- trated through more than thirty feet of ruins before he reached the virgin soil, and thirty-five feet before he was at the water level. But at this lower level there were the human remains, which showed that man had existed in a rude state before this great city, whose ruins rise so high above the desert, had begun to be built. It is supposed, by Mr. Haynes, to be the ancient place where sacrificial victims were burned; but by Profe'-sor Hilprecht was supposed to mark the site of a prehistoric grave, which was dug during the Stone Age. Prof. Hilprecht says that twenty-one strata of histoiical periods are represented by the ruins of Nippur. In the earliest Sumerian stratum we recognize six phases of historical develop- ment, by the remains of the different kinds of brick employed and by the size of the brick; six periods are determined by frag- ments of baked and unbaked bricks in the temple court. The walls of the early period were of immense thickness, and were 52 QUARRY-DRKSSED STONES. made of unburned clay, but columns were not used until quite late in history. In fact, it is supposed by Prof. Hilprecht that there were libraries in Babylonia before columns were built. Gateways, with inscribed sockets, were used before there were columns. Ziggurats, or towers, were built before the column came into use. An arch, made out of brick, with wedge- shaped joints, and made out of simple clay, was discovered. It was built to sup- port a vaulted tunnel, which was used for the draining of the foundations of the palace and the temple; the preservation of the arch for six thousand years showing the same mechanical strength and skill that built it. The religious instincts of the people, to be sure, for a long time discouraged any deviation from the original shapes. The sacredness of the house, led to the perpetuity of its shape in the tomb, and the sacredness of both gave a conventional shape to the temple. The conception of the universe was that of a great house, whose dome spanned the sky, and was peo- pled by the divinities, above, and by man below. In Egypt, also, graves have been found which antedated the days of the pyramids by several thousand years. These graves show that the habitation which was occupied, was a circular hut, and that the people were in the Stone Age, but were acquainted with the use of pottery, and were accustomed to bury their dead in the form of a cir- cular grave, and deposit pottery vessels along with them. The history of the city of Jerusa- lem is written in its walls and in the stones lying beneath the surface. But before the city was occupied by the Israelites there was on the same spot, the walled town which was built by the Canaanites, and was, perhaps, overthrown by the Hittites. =■->-*-«" \ ■■■. V- , - J^ .^^^/^- — ->- '^^fes^^^^te^ 2f» fS^j;5*^;>-.^ ITt:**- ROUGH BOSSES AND COMB MARGINS. 53 These possibly may have been in existence when Abraham was following his flocks. The excavations at Jerusalem, conducted afterward by Mr. Bliss, revealed a series of walls and gateways, which proved a succession of cities even at Jerusalem. The stones in the wall show various styles of masonry and several periods of rebuild- ing. The lowest course show rough foundation work; above it, quarry-dressed and roughly-squared; the third, straight joints; the fourth, chisel-picked centers and combed-margins; another, rough bosses and comb-picked margins. Great towers were found, with massive walls; also rock-hewn chambers and door-sills, which had been worn by the feet of those who passed over them. A succession of these, one above the other, showed the passage of time. Mr. F, J. Bliss says: "The hint is WALL WITH ABUTMENTS AT JERUSALEM. furnished by the fortifications, that the first city was built to resist the great conquerors of the Egyptian d)'nasty, begin- ning with Thothmes I. It is possible, however, that they may have been built earlier as a protection against local foes."* II. We turn to the gateway. This is a very important ele- ment in the histor)- of architecture, for it carries us back to the earliest times, when men dwelt in huts, and brings us on to the time when they dwelt in great cities, whose walls secured a defense, and entrance to which was thoroughly guarded. We give a picture of the gateway at Mycenas, which repre- sents the different kinds of walls, the earliest form of the arch, the earlie>it form of the column, and the earliest form of the hut or house; all in close proximit)', and all suggestive of the * Mounds of Many Cities," p. 137. 64 traditions of the past, but full of promise for the future. This gateway brings to light that stage of civilization which pre- vailed during the Mycenaean Age, and shows us the gradual de- velopment of architecture through all ages. We see in the walls that guarded the entrance to the gateway, the different forms and styles of dressing the stone: the rough course of masonry represents the cyclopcean period ; the polygonal stones represent the second period; the stones with rough bosses projecting, the third period. The same forms of masonry have been found by Mr. F. J. Bliss in the walls of Jerusalem. Besides these, he found both quarry-dressed and chisel-picked stone, making a fourth and 5fth period. The gatevvays at Jerusalem show several distinct periods, by super-induced sills with door sockets. The width of the gate varies, with the different periods, but the smooth- faced masonry continued through four gate periods. The abutment? and gate-towers are important in connection with the history of architecture. In the earliest period, there were no abutments and no columns, but at a later period abutments appeared in Babylonia, in Jerusalem, at Damascus, and at Troy. But the plain wall, with its different kinds of stone cutting or trimming, is a better index of age or period, than the abutment. Great catastrophies came upon the different cities of the e^ist, and changed them into immense heaps, from which there stood forth only the great thick walls and the terraces of the temples. But it is difificult to determine the age, from tbe ruins and debris of the temples; so that when we find a gate- way like that at Mycenae, we can read the record more readily and correctly, than we can that which is presented by different layers of earth, or the different kinds of buildings. There were gateways at Babylonia belonging to different periods^ some of which were guarded by lion-headed figures; others, by the figures of immense bulls, and by human figures, with eagle heads, showing that the religious symbols were incorporated into the architecture at a very early date. There were also great gateways in front of the temples of Egypt, but in front of the gateways there were long, parallel lines of sphinxes^ arranged in double rows, which guarded the approach to the temple, and imparted a sense of awe and fear to all who ap- proached the temple. The gateway itself was of a more im- posing height than the temple, in front of which it stood, but it was built after the same general style, with its walls drawing in towards the top, and an immense cornice, or coping, pro- jecting beyond the wall; while the common religious symbol, of the winged globe, was a conspicuous figure in front of the wall and above the entrance to the gateway. There were obelisks in Egypt, which were placed in front of the temple, and which were, perhaps, the earliest form of the column; but were the survivals from the prehistoric period, and are sup- posed to be connected with sun-worship. < ^ O (* o 3-°° I- 2". * a' o £ -,» ~ s> •S r» g rt (^ " ?T -2 O A ^ rt W •« *^ »> 3 ■ " r>2.S n - n ^_. K " „ «• 2S-13 c 3 ^ "^ O^^O.* ft S.JO o) -5 S "' o ■ "O " » 3 2_ _>< ■• ». II •O ^ c o •1 < O Z o > -3 > > ■< O E.cr 3 (-» it 3-0 a -a. o 5' 9 S' 3 " a 3 , B eg. M 3 5-5 S « • r ,i CO OBELISK OF THOTHMES AT KARNAK. 55 Obelisks are supposed to be the survivals of the standing stones, which were so common in prehistoric times, and were always connected with the sun-worship which prevailed. These standing stones were connected with the open air temples, which were always circular in shape, and only pre- sented a series of triliths, arranged in the form of a horseshoe, with the altar in the center; but the fact that there was a mono- lith, or standing stone in the gateway of this temple, and that it was so placed as to cast a shadow into the temple and toward the altar at the time of the rising of the sun, at the time of the solstice, suggests the thought that the obelisk was a survival of the same worship, and that the temple of Egypt was devoted to sun-worship. Of course there was a great contrast between the temples of Egypt and these circular enclosures, for they are surrounded by solid walls, which are decorated by figures of kings and priests, and are filled with stately columns finished in the highest style of Egyptian art. Yet these veiy temples were so arranged as to catch the rays of the sun as it rises at the solstice. The \ery innermost recesses of the temple being reached by the rays, which turned the temple into a gigantic telescope. These elements, however, which were found in the different gateways of Babylonia, Ass)'ria and Egypt, were concentrated into a small compass in the gateway of Mycena;, for here we find different kinds of walls, representing different ages and styles of architecture on either side of the gateway, itself — the rude lintel, with a post above the lintel, a lion upon either side of the post, a rude form of triangular arch above the post, and behind the gateway we see the conical form of the "treasure house," which represents the primitive hut, and yet was the tomb of a king. The whole progress of architecture up to this time was concentrated into this one locality, but the promise and anticipation of its future is concentrated into the pillar, or post, above the gateway, for this is the earliest repre- sentative of the column. in. This leads us to the column, and its connection with the tree. It was formerly the opinion that the column was the representation and the survival of the wooden post which sup- ported the projecting roof of the primitive house, and so formed the portico to the house. This was a thought men- tioned by Ferrot and Chippiez, who have shown very clearly that the connecting links are to be found in the tombs of Midas in Phrygia and elsewhere, and assert they were trans- mitted from Persia to Asia Minor and Greece at an early period. But the opinion of Arthur Evans is that the column is the sur- vival of the tree, which stood in the Garden of Eden, and was a symbol of the presence of the divinity. The standing stones and dolmens were also the survival of the tree. The columns of Persia have capitals in the form of two- heided oxen, and pyramids in the form of dogs. The columns 56 of Egypt have capitals in the form of the lotus blossom — buds and blossoms. The columns of the Greeks have capitals in different shapes, each order of Greek architecture being indi cated by the shape of the capital. The Doric capital was always in the form of a roundlet; the Ionic capital in the form of a scroll; the Cornithian in the form of an acanthus leaf; the Phoenician capital in the form of an animal's head. The American column was without a capital, but had a band about the middle, and served as an ornament in front of the palaces. None of these decide the question as to whether ihe column was a development from the tree, and was a religious symbol or not; for some would take the ground that there was an in- dependent origin of the column, and the tree, and the capital, in every country, and that each nation developed the capital and the column from its own ideas, independently of every other nation. This is certainly true, that the column, with its capi- tal, very fitly represents the habits and ideas of the people who have adopted it as the chief ornament in their archi- tectural structures. The animal-headed capital of the Persians suggests that they had to do with cat- tle; the fluted column of the Egyptians, sur- mounted by the capital in the form of a lotus blossom, suggests the thought that the lotus was their sacred plant, and was a symbol of their religion. But the column of the Greeks, which was so different from all others, represented the kingly power — the lion either side of the column, being symbols of strength and power. The position of the column over the gateway which led to the treasure houses of the king, seems to confirm this supposition. There was, however, no doubt, a religious element connected with the column and its capital, everywhere, for the column in its use throughout all ages and lands was more of an ornament than a support, and was never regarded as a mere mechanical contrivance, or a part of the structural develop- ment. There were primitive settlements at Knossos, and a thickly populated region at a remote prehistoric period. This was CARVED POSTS AND RAFTERS. 57 during the Stone Age. Dr. Arthur Evans says: "There was a transitional period, when copper came into use. At this time there were columns and streets, and pottery was in common use." At Crete excavations have brought to light a series of primitive houses containing pre-Mycenrean pottery, also evi- dences of " pillar worship." Dr. Evans lighted upon a pre- historic palace, which he connects with the name of Minos. One thousand inscribed tablets in script, partly hieroglyphic and partly alphabetic, were exhumed. A bridge and a road were discovered, connecting Knossos with other cities of great antiquity. There was a high artistic development at Knossos in prehistoric times. The existence in Crete of a prehistoric system of vviiting, is maintained. Pottery identical with that at Hissarlik was found in the early strata. Associated with celts, are perforated maces, obsidian knives, spindle whorls and bone implements. A transition period occurred when copper came into use. Pillars of Mycenaean form, sloping downward, narrower at the bottom than at the top, made of wood, were found; also a corridor, priestly forms wearing long robes, a central clay area, the survival of a prehistoric dwelling, were also disco\ered by Dr. Evans, who says: Among the great monuments of the Mycenaean world hitherto made known, it is remarkable that so little is found with reference to religious beliefs. The great wealth of the tombs, the rich contents of the pit graves, the rock-cut chambers, the massive vaults of the bee-hive tombs, are all so many evidences of a highly developed cult of " departed spirits." The pit altar of the Acropolis at Mycenae was dedicated to the "cult of the ancestors of the household." In the central area of Knossos, how- ever, there has been brought to light two rectangular altars, showing a special relation to the god of the " Double Axe." The colossal rock-hewn altar at the mouth of the Idaean cave revealed the same thing. Through- out Crete, a series of caves contain votive and sacrificial deposits. In the prehistoric city of Gaulos, in Crete, we have the remains of a shrine con- taining a sacred tree; also a doorway showing the sanctity of the trilith as a ritual doorway. This doorway of the enclosure may have had before it, a sacred pillar; while within the sacred shrine was the tree itself, spread- ing its boughs over the low walls and lintel. Within this, was a rock-cut cistern, showing that a ritual watering of sacred trees was the regular fea- ture of this form of worship. In Mycena; the tree is associated with the sacred pillar. The cult of trees and pillars of rude stones maybe regarded as identical forms of wor- ship, but illustrate the progress of architecture as connected with religion. The presence of a tree or bush indicated the possession of the material object by the '" Numen " or divinity, exactly as sun worship will account for the rough pyramidal stone, often seen so close to the altar, and in reality would account for the obelisk being placed in front of the pyramid tomb. The cult of Mvcenasan times consisted in the worship of sacred stones, pillars and trees. The whispering of the leaves of the trees at Dodonia, was the actual voice of the divinity. In the Druidical worship of the tree, the menhir was the symbol of the divinity; it was a survival of the tree. The prehistoric stone fence at RoUright guarded the temple enclosure, but the king-stone, is the tree. The Uiktean caves contained a stalactite in the shape of a tree. The sanctity of the portal and the doorway, in the primitive cult, is very general, and is associated with the sacred tree. The doorway, in a later architecture, like the dolmen, in Italy served as the dwell- .ing place of the deity, making the threshold to be always regarded as sacred. 58 The Myctnrean column may have been derived from the tree, which was sacred; its downward tapering distinguishing the Greek ftom the Egyptian column. The Egyptian obelisk tapered from base to top, and resembled the menhir, while the earliest Greek column tapered from top to bottom, and resembled the tree with its branches. There is no trace of shafts or capitals at Knossos, though the shape of the shafts or columns has the downward taper, after the Mycenaean style. The most interesting feature of the column and gateway at Mycenpe, is that they not only represent the survival of all the earliest elements of architecture, but they also represent the earliest form of the arch. Here, the arch is only a triangular opening, above a lintel, the column resting upon the lintel, but supporting what might be called a substitute for the k^^ystone, and all together serving to distribute the weight, the wall on the two sides, and the pier and lintel and the column, receiving the weight, and together bearing the strain. But the principle of the true arch is lacking. This leads us to the subject of the arch. It was formerly the opinion that the earliest form of the arch was the triangle, the very one presented in this gatewa}'. Recent explorations in Babylonia, have, however, brought to light an arch made of brick, which has the keystone, and so is a true arch; and Dr. Hilprecht claims that it was executed about 40CO B. C, and was built over an aqueduct or drain, but was fifteen feet below Naram Sins pavement. This arch presents peculiarities which are of special interest, provided it was built at the time assigned to it. Dr. Hilprecht says: It was constructed of well-baked brick, measuring 12 x 2'^ inches, laid on the prmciple of radiating voussoirs. The curve of the arch was effected by wedge-shaped joints of simple clay mortar, used to cement the bricks. On the top of its crown, was a crushed terra-cotta pipe, intended to give exit to the ram water. It is supposed that the tunnel, which was used for a drain, was made to support all of the superincumbent mass, by this remarkable arch. The walls of the tunnel were built with remarkable care, the lower courses being placed flat-wise, while the upper courses were up and down, like the books on a shelf. The lowest real brick structure was about thirty feet .ibove the undis- turbed soil; in other words, about the level of Naram Sm's pavement, in the temple mound. A corbelled arch of crude bricks, and a vaulted celler of burned bricks, the latter about twelve by eight feet in length and breadth, were discovered somewhere at a low level m the same mounds. From general indications, I should ascribe them to about 2500 B. C. They give evidence to the fad that arches and vaults were by no means uncommon in ancient Nippur. The city became an especial place of worship, the temple court pro- vided with a solid pavement and high walls. It presented this character for over 3,000 years. Nine strata can be distinguished, more or less accu- rately, in the temple court. The debris constituting the different strata, representing nearly 3,500 years of history, and including the pavement of Naram Sin, measures only from seventeen to nineteen feet in the temple court. CHAPTER V. EARTH AND STONE CIRCLES. Stone circles may be classed among the earliest and most primitive of architectural structures, though they have been ascribed to the latest of the prehistoric ages. They have been the objects of stud\- by archaeologists for man\' years, but have been and still are very mysterious, as their origin and use are unknown. There have been various opinions advanced in reference to them, and many fanciful theories have been presented. The first theory which gained any extended support, was that they were erected by the Druids, and for a time they were called Druidical circles. This theor\' was adopted by the famous antiquarians Stukeley, Bryant, Aubrey and, Maurice, all of whom wrote extensively upon the symbolism which was con- tained in them. It was an interesting theory, as worship of ancient rude stones in consecrated groves and the sanguinary sacrifice of men and beasts has a strange fascination about it. Maurice says: The Indo-Scythians performed their sanguinary sacrifices under groves of oak, of astonishing extent and of profoundest gloom. With the Scythians, a tali and stately tree with wide-spreading arms was the majestic emblem of God. Their perverted imaginations conceived the majesty and attributes to be best represented by gigantic sculpture and massive symbols. These grotesfjue and ponderous stones were placed in the centre of the most hal- lowed groves, and it is probable that they placed them, as we find them arranged in the Temple of Stonehenge, in a circular manner; the sun be ing the general object of ancient adoration, whose temples were always erected in a circular form, like those of the Persians at Persepolis. They were open at the top, for like them, the Scythians esteemed it impious to confine the deity, who pervades all nature, whose temple is earth and sky, within the narrow limits of a covered shrine, erected by mortal hands. A deity was supposed to reside amidst the solitary grandeur of those rugged misshapen rocks; superstition aided a disturbed imagination to give the airy phantom a form gigantic as his imagined temple; to adorn him with the symbols of vengeance and terror, and invest him with attributes and properties congenial with their awe and apprehension. Hence it arose, that, with this species of rock devotion, rites of a sombre and melancholy nature were perpetually blended, and that their altars were stained with such torrents of human as well as bestial blood. It was a place of blood and horror, abounding with altars reeking witli the gore of human victims, by which all the trunlcs of the lofty and eternal oaks, which ^compased it, were dyed a crimson color; black and turbid waters roiled through it in many a winding stream; no soul ever entered the forlorn abode, except the priest, who, at noon and at midnight, with pale- ness on brow and tremor in his step, went thither to celebrate the horrible mysteries in honor of that terrific deity, whose aspect he yet dreaded more than death to behold.* • " Indian Antiquities or Dissertations," by Maurice. 60 On May Eve, the Druids made prodigious fires on these cairns, which being every one in sight of some other, could not but afford a glorious show over the whole nation. The Druids on their great festivals wore on their garments or carried in their hands, a crescent of gold, silver or other metal. This ornament has long glittered on the banners of the East. It was when the moon was six days old that they marched in solemn procession together, and it was from that precise period that they began to count anew the months and years which formed the celebrated cycle of that duration. Their veneration of the astronomical symbol of the crescent may be also regarded as an additional proof that those crescent-like temples in Anglesea and Orkney, which some have mistaken for amphitheatres, were really temples to the moon. This explanation by the old writers appealed to the imagi- nation and was very popular, as popular as the theory that the mounds were built by the lost tribes of Israel, has been in America, and as difficult to supplant. Later on, the subject was taken up again, and an explana- tion was given which went to the other extreme. The stone circles were regarded by some as quite modern. Some of them were built after the time of the Romans. This was the theory that Fergusson advanced. The interpretation given by Fergusson was that the circles were designed as burial places, and possibly marked the boundaries of ancient tumuli; the standing stones were the monuments which were erected on battlefields in memory of those who had fallen. He maintained that the alignments at Carnac, in France, marked the place of struggle on the battlefield, and the dolmens the burial places of the chiefs, and that the circles and standing stones belonged to the Roman period. "The standing stones at Carnac represented the march; those at St. Basle, the position before the battle; those at Erdovan, the scene of the final struggle for the heights, and the tombs scattered over the plains and between the alignments, the graves of those who fell in battle. The date was between the overthrow of the Roman power by Maximus in 383 and the Sixth Century A. D." Another explanation of Stonehenge was that given by Jeffrey of Monmouth, that it was erected by Merlin to com- memorate those who fell, treacherously slain by Hengist in 462. Fergusson objected to the theory that they were used as temples, and says: What kind of a worship could be performed in them P Assuming a cere- mony to take place in the centre of either of the circles; the double low of stones is so placed as to obstruct the view in any direction, no sanctuary, no altar, no procession path, no priests' house. In India, we have temples as big, but their history is written in their faces. There is a small shrine with a narrow enclosure and a small gateway, but for some cause it grows; a second enclosure is added to contain new accommodations for pilgrims and new halls and new residences for priests. The description of the enclosures and circles, as given by Fergusson, is very valuable, but his explanation is not satisfac- tory. Recently, the archaeologists have gone back to a modified 61 form of the old theor}-, that the stone circles were used for sun worship and that they were oriented. This is virtually the theory advanced by Mr. A. L. Lewis, who has compared them with the structures erected in Mashonaland. He has, also, in an article in the American Antiquarian, shown that there was always some peak in the neighborhood, or some massive stone or mound, outside of the circles, which caught the rays of the sun when rising, at the time of the solstices, and it may be inferred from this that the circles were used for special religious ceremonies at such times. In reference to this, we may cite the testimon\- of Fergusson himself, who shows that many of the circles were attended with these prominent gnomons. 'Long Meg and Her Daughters' is situated a half mile from Penrith, and consist of 68 stones, 330 feet in diameter. Outside of the circle is ' Long Meg,' 12 feet high; on the inside are two cairns. Stanton Drew consists of one circle, 378 by 345 feet in diameter; the second is 129 feet in diameter; a third, 96 feet; attached to the circles are avenues, and a large stone called the ' King Stone' resembles the ' Ring Stone ' at Abury, the ' Long Meg ' at Southhold, and the ' Friar's Heel ' at Stonehenge." Fergusson speaks of the distribution of stone monuments. He says that there are 20,000 in Algeria. In northern Africa, there are concentric circles, arranged in a series of steps with little towers, 7 to 40 feet in diameter, and triple circles with dolmens in the centre. In India, there are dolmens with two circles surrounding them. There are circles in western Asia, in Brittany, also in Scotland, the Orkneys, Isle of Man, and Isle of Skye. The finest circle is at Stennis, which is composed of 12 stones 15 to 18 feet high, and contains a dolmen. Beyond the stones is a ditch, and surrounding the whole, a wall of earth, 240 feet in diameter. On the Isle of Man. at Mule Hill, is a circle containing eight cists, with a gap between them, like Arbor Low. At Boscawen there are five circles. In Cum- berland is a circle 100 feet in diameter, composed of 44 stones, nnd an outer circle composed of 14 stones; four cairns or mounds being inside of the smaller circles. .Sir John Lubbock differs from Fergusson and calls the circles "open air temples," and refers to Abury and Stone- henge as specimens. He pronounces Abury the greatest of all so-called Druidical monuments. He says: It is, indeed, much less known than Stonehenge; and yet, though a ruder, it must have been originally a grander temple. According to Aubrey, "Abury did as much exceed Stonehenge as a cathedral does a parish church." \\Tien perfect, it consisted of a circular ditch and embankment, containing an area of 28>^ acres; inside the ditch was a circle of great stones, and within this, again, two smaller circles, formed by a double row of smaller stones, standing side by side. From the outer embankment started two long winding avenues of stone, one of which went in the direc- tion of Beckhampton, and the other in that of Kennet, where it ended in another double circle. Stukeley supposed that the idea of the whole was that of a snake transmitted through a circle; the Kennet circle representing 62 the head, the Beckhanipton avenue, the tail. Midway between the two avenues, stood Silbury Hill, the largest artificial mound in Great Britain, measuring not less than 170 feet in height. From its position, it appears to form part of the general plan, and though it has been twice examined, no primary interment has been found in it. On the whole, this appears to have been at one time the finest megalithic ruin in Europe; but, unfor- tunately for us, the pretty little village of Abury, like some beautiful para- site, has grown up at the expense, and in the midst, of the ancient temple, and out of 650 great stones, not above 20 are still standing. It is evident that Stonehenge was at one time, a spot of great sanctity. A glance at the ordnance map will show that tumuli cluster in great num- bers around, within sight of it; within a radius of three miles there are about three hundred burial mounds, while the rest ot the country is comparatively free from them. Both Abury and Stonehenge were, I believe, used as temples, homeot the stone circles, however, have been proved to be burial places. In fact, a complete burial place may be described as a dolmen, covered by a tumulus, and surrounded by a stone circle. Often, however, we have only the dolmen, and sometimes, again, onlv the stone circle. The celebrated monument of Carnac, in Brittanv. consists of 11 rows of unhewn stones, which differ greatly, both in size and height, the largest being 22 feet above ground, while some are quite small. It appears that the avenues originally extended for several miles, but at present they are very imperfect, the stones having been cleared away in places for agricultural improvements. Most of the great tumuli in Brittany probably belong to the Stone Age, and I am, therefore, disposed to regard Carnac as having been erected during the same period. Megalithic erections, resembling those which are generally, but with- out sufficient reason ascribed to the Druids, are found in very distant coun- tries. In Moab, De Saulcy observed rude stone avenues, and other monu- ments, which he compares to Celtic dolmens. Lieut. Oliver, also, mentions that the Hovas of Madagascar to this day erect monoliths and stone tombs, closelv resembling those of western Europe. Mr. Maurice was, I believe, the first to point out, that in some parts of India, there are various monuments of stone, which, in the words of Colonel Yule, "lecall strongly the mysterious, solitary or clustered mcnuments of unknown origin, so long the puzzle and delight of antiquarians, which abound in our native country, and are seen here and there in all parts of Europe and western Asia. Mr. Fergusson goes further, and argues with great ingenuity that the " Buddhist architecture in India, as practised from the thud century B. c. to the seventh a. d., is essentially tumular, circular, and external, thus possessing the three great characteristics of all the so-called Uruidical remains. It is a very remarkable fact that, even to the present day, some of the hill tribes in India continue to erect menhirs, cromlechs, and other combi- nations of gigantic stones, sometimes singlv, sometimes in rows, sometimes in circles, in'either case very closely resembling those found in western Europe.* That the circles were open-air temples is shown in the fact that a house built and set apart for the purposes of worship was, according to Tsountas, "an unfamiliar thing in the days of Homer, nor was it a necessity of primitive religion." t Jacob Grimm says: " In the oldest expressions in Germany, the temple cannot be disassociated from the Holy Grove. Temple and forest are convertible terms. What we conceive as a house, built and walled in, passes as we go further into earlier times, • " Prehistoric Times," by Sir John Lubbock, Bart., pp. 119-127. f'The Mycenxan Age," Tsountas and Chi.itus, p. 308. 63 into the idea of holy ground, hedged in and surrounded by trees, never touched by the hand of man." Tsountas says: " After all, the altar in the house or in the open air, must have satisfied the requirements of the Mycenaean Age. The altar was either a simple heap ot stones, or a more regular structure, like that on a painted tablet, in either case, raised to a considerable height above the ground." The altar discovered in the courtyard at Tiryns, is a case in hand. Altars have been discovered in Westmoreland, England, and with long passage ways of standing stones leading to them. As to the orientation of the circles, there seems to be mere un- certainty. Still, the archaeologists, such as Mr. A. L. Lewis, Mr. Flinders Petrie, and most of the Egyptologists, Mr. Norman Lockyer the astronomer included, maintained that they were. Mr. A. L. Lewis has given much attention to the subject, and has read many articles before the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain. An article recently published in the American Anti- quarian contains a resume of his studies. There are certain antiquities which, though not absolutely confined to Great Britam, are more numerous there, than in any other part of the world, and are of greater size and importance there than in all the rest of the world, so far as it has been archzeologically explored. These are the circles of stones, ot which Sionehenge is best known, especially to Americans. These circles may be divided into three classes: i. Hut circles, or continuous circular walls, seldom more than three feet high, and generally formed of blocks as thick and broad as they are long, which are the lower parts of prehistoric dwellings ; these vary in diameter from ten to thirty feet, the larger ones having often had central supports for the roof in addition to the circular walls. 2. Small circles of rather thin flat stones set on edge, which have been placed round the bases of sepulchral tumuli, either close to them as retaining walls, or as fences or ornaments at a little dis- tance from them. 3. Circles of separate upright stones, which are generally much larger than the circles of the first and second classes, for their diameters vary from 60 to 380 feet, while the great circle of Abury was at least i.ioo feet in diameter. The stones of which circles of this kind are composed also vary in size, from pillars less than three feet high and a foot or so in width and thickness, to monoliths twenty feet high, six feet wide and three feet thick, like the largest at Stonehenge ; or masses fifteen feet high and broad, and six feet thick, like some of those which still remain at Abury. Some of the stones of these circles are more or less rudely shaped, but most of them show no sign of working. The present article will be confined to the consideration of circles of the third class, and of their possible objects, with regard to which archaeologists are by no means agreed, for, while circles 64 ot the first class have clearly formed parts of dwellings, and those of the second class are unanimously admitted to have formed parts of tombs, there are points about those of the third class which are differently interpreted by different writers, and regarded as purely accidental and meaningless by others. Of all circles, large or small, the best known and most numer- ously visited is Stonehenge (eight miles from Salisbury). The outer circle at Stonehenge is 97 feet in diameter inside, and, when (if ever) complete, consisted of thirty stones, each about thirteen feet high, the tops of which were connected by stones laid across the spaces between them, which stones were kept in STONEHENGE RESTORED. place by projections on the tops of the upright stones which fitted into holes made in the horizontal stones. Within this circle was another of small upright stones, which, if ever complete, num- bered about forty-four. Within these again were five groups of three stones each, two upright supporting one horizontal, the latter bsing kept in place by tenons and mortices cut in the solid stone, like those of the outer circle ; these five groups of trilithons were arranged in the form of a horseshoe, the highest being to the southwest, with two lower ones on each side, and an opening nearly forty feet wide between them to the northeast. Inside this horseshoe of trilithons was another, consisting of nine- teen upright stones, from 10 to 12^ feet high (the highest being in 65 front of the highest trilithon), with an opening to the northeast coinciding with that of the horseshoe of trih'thons. Within these, and in front of the great central trilithon, was a flat stone, more than i6 feet long and 2]/, wide, which is usually called the " altar stone." A trench and low bank surround the circle at a dis- tance of about lOO feet ; an avenue, marked out by earlhern banks, leads from the trench in a northeasterly direction, and at a dis- tance of 96 feet along this avenue is a large upright stone, with a pointed, but unworked top, known as the " Friar's Heel," which is in such a position that anyone standing on the "altar stone " on the morning of midsummer day may see the sun rise just over the top of the "Friar's Heel." Some say that this stone has no connection with the circle, but marks probably an isolated burial; but, if the stone were not there at all, the arrangement of /^ ^■'""'"'^l^uiW^^^ 'flKIrniir-V*' AlUKV A(C(.1K1)1 N(,\ Til sTLKKLi:\. the circles and of the avenue would still point unmistakeably in the direction of the midsummer sunrise. Though I have omitted many details which have caused much discussion among archaeologists and others, I have described Stonehenge at considerable length, because it is unique as regards the cap stones connecting the upright stones, and in some other particulars ; and because it combines characteristics of different localities in a way no other circle does, and gives a key to the object of other and. as I think', older ones, for my im- pression is that Jeffrey of Monmouth's statement that Stone- henge was set up as a memorial of some British nobles treach- erously murdered by the Saxons, is very likel}' to be correct. If so, it was probably erected in its present form on the site of an older circle, by Britons, who, though Christians themselves, had some knowledge of the rites and ceremonies of pagan times and adopted this form of memorial to show their connection with the pre-Roman inhabitants, and it may in that case have been the only solar temple in which the sun was never adored. 66 If the " Friar's Heel" at Stonehenge were really set up to mark the midsummer sunrising point, there should, it would seem, be some indication of the same point in other circles, and it is to this that I have directed particular attention, with the fol- lowing results : Single stones are to be found, or are known to have existed, to the northeast of the following circles: The Rollrich, near Chipping- Norton in Oxfordshire; "Mitchell's Fold," Shrop- shire; Winterbourne, Wiltshire; Winterbourne, Dorsetshire; Scorhill on Dartmoor, and Dance Maen, near Penzance, Corn- wall. At Abury in Wiltshire, and Arbor Lowe in Derbyshire, the circles were surrounded by high banks which shut out the horizon from the view of those inside them, and at both places a shrine, technically called a "cove," consisting of 3 stones forming 3 sides of a square, | | the open side of which faced northeast, stood in the centre. At Stanton Drew, near Bristol, there is a group of three circles and some other stones which are arranged in lines with each other, and apparently at carefully proportioned distances, some of which may have a symbolical meaning; in one of these lines a circle occupies the position to the northeast of the principal circle, which is elsewhere occupied by a single stone. A "cove" similar to that at Abury stands near these circles. Near Penmaenmawr in North Wales there are two fallen stones northeast of a circle, but being in a valley they would not be of much use as indicators of the sun-rising point. However they direct the eye to a group of three hills beyond. At Mitchell's Fold in Shropshire there is, or was, also a stone in a northeasterly direction, but the sun-rising point is occupied by a high hill, beyond which, in the same line, and at an equal dis tance, is another circle, called the " Hoarstone," or Marshpool Circle, beyond which, again, is a group of three low hills. The observation of these facts led me to think that in hilly countries the circle builders had (very wisely) placed their circles in such a position that some prominent hill top should fulfil the function of indicator, which on level ground was discharged by a single stone. I am now inclined to think that the order of precedence may have been the reverse, and that the hill may have been the first to be made use of, the single stone being set up where a hill was not available. Be this as it may, hills take the place of stones to the northeast of circles not only in Wales and Shropshire, as already stated, but at Fernworthy on Dartmoor, at Stannon, at Leaze, at the Trippet Stones and Stripple Stones, and at Bosked- nan, all in Cornwall. In Cumberland, again, there is another variation; instead of the stone or hill being to the northeast of the circle, the circle is to the northeast of the stone or hill, but the line of orientation remains the same — southwest to northeast. Thus, at " Long Meg" and her " Daughters," the single stone called " Long Meg " is southwest of the circle formed by the O >« H < O > < ti O 67 other stones (the "Daughters"); while at Swinside the most prominent hill near — Black Combe — is southwest from the circle, and a group of three smaller hills is northeast from it. These statements by Mr. A. L. Lewis apply only to the Stone Circles of Great Brittain. They conform to the com- mon opinion that these circles were erected for two or three purposes; first, to mark off the burial places and separate them from the surrounding area, very much as does the fence, around the modern grave yard: second, to serve as an open air temple, the openings into them being so as to admit of large processions but the center being used as altars or places of sacrifice; third, to enable the people to watch the course of the sun and to mark the time of the sol- stices, or in other words, to serve as calendar stones on a large scale. We may say that the English Archaeologists have rec- ognized all three uses in the stone circles of Great Britian. Joseph Anderson says: The circles of erect stones which mark off the grave f^round from the surrounding area, are memorials of moral significance, whether they be re- garded as marks of filial piety and family affection, or of more public sympathy and appreciation of worth. In all the instances the circle of stone setting, what ever may be the precise form which it assunies, has been found to be the external sign by which the burial ground is distin- guished from the surrounding area. Like the cairn, it is the visible mark of the spot of earth to which the remains of the dead have been consigned. The circles in France differ from those of Great Brittain in that they generally were used to mark off the graves from the surrounding country. The plate given herewith shows a large number of stone circles, cromlechs, stone cairns, dolmens, menhirs and circles in the Necropolis of Brittany. It will be noticed that some of these are surrounded by small stone circles; that the standing stones or menhirs are arranged in a circular form, but there is no large circle such as is found at Stonehenge and Avebury, and yet it may be, that the alignments served somewhat the same purpose as the large circles. The niost interesting circle is that which was found b>- Dr. Schliemann while exploring the tombs at Mycen;e. These tombs were arranged in the form of a circle. They were not used as an open air temple, but may have served the purpose of a grave circle. Tsountas says: "The MvcemtJ.n tombs are of two general tvpes. The first is that of the oblong pit, sunk vertically in the ground, very much like the modern grave; the second includes the bee hive or tholus-structure and the rock- chamber, approached alike by an avenue (dromos) cut horizontally into a hill side. It is the second which offers the great monuments of sepulchral architecture; but the shaft graves are obviously earlier in origin, as they were the first and are still the foremost in their contribution to our knowl- edge of the age to which they belong. They are therefore entitled to the first consideration. If the visitor to Mycenae enter the Citadel by the Lions' gate, and turn to the south, twenty paces more will bring him to the entrance of 68 a unique circular enclosure. It is eighty-seven feet in diameter and fencea in by a double row of limestone slabs set vertically in two concen- tric rings. These rings are about three feet apart, and the space between them was originally hlled with small stones and earth and then covered with cross-slabs of tlie same kind with the uprights, six of which were found in place.* The result is a wall some four and one-half feet thick and three to nve feet high, the variation being due to the slope of the rock from east to west; for this curious ring-wall does not enclose a level space. On the contrary, the ground falls off so abruptly that on the west a Cyclopean re- taining wall over eighteen feet high (at the maximum) had to be built for the support of the terrace, and even this wall is still two feet below the level of the native rock in the eastern part of the enclosure. The plate showsthecharacter of this circle and the cyclopean walls surrounding it. but does not show the altar which was found over the center of the fourth tomb. This altar accord- ing to Dr Schliemann consisted of an almost circular mass of Cyclopaean masonry with a large round opening in the form of a well. It was found four feet high and measured seven feet from north to south and five and one-fourth feet from east to west. It shows that close above the grave circle a place of sacrifice had been established so that what-ever we may say about the graves themselves there was a form of wor- ■ ship observed in this place, which perhaps resembled that at Stonehenge in Great Britain. The rich offerings of gold and silver, and the style and decoration of the ornaments show that it belonged to a period later than the stone age for they revealed a wealth and splendor such as only could have been displayed by a kingly race. We turn now from these circles of the old world to those found in the new world, with the special object of tracing the analogies between them. We may say that there are in Peru certain stone circles, which very closely resemble those in Al- geria, for they are arranged in terraces and furnish evidence of having been used in connection with sun worship. The near cir- cle is ten feet in diameter, the further one has a grooved out-ly- ing platform one hundred and fifty feet in diameter. The two show the prevalence of sun worship. Another locality in Bolivia presents a square two story burial tower (Chulpa) with hill fort- ress (Pucura) in the distance situated east of Lake Titicaca. The most interesting locality where circles and circular enclo- sures are found is in the state of Ohio which was the center of the mound builders works. Here we find the burial mounds and altar mounds without circles, but there are many mounds and so called temple mounds, which were surrounded by earth circles with a ditch upon the inside of the wall and a platform surrounding the mound, and a single entrance through the wall and across the ditch giving access to the burial place or altar. There are also earth circles, which were used only as •These covering slab-s (according to Schlieminn) "are firmly fitted in and consolidated by means of notches, forming a mortise and tenon joint" (Mycenae p. 124). There was also an avenue to the grave circle reminding us of those at Avebiiry. 69 village enclosures but in certain cases mounds have been seen occupying- the very center of the village enclosure with a stone pavement surrounding them, showing that these were used either as a place of worship or burial too sacred for intrusion. The most notable and interesting of all the circles found in America are those near Portsmouth, Ohio. These are interesting because they so remarkably resemble the circles at Stonehenge and Avebury in Great Britain. They were explored when they were in good state of preser- vation by several parties. Squier and Davis gave a descrip- tion of them as follows: 'The work consists of three divisions or groups, extending for eight miles along the Ohio River. Two of the groups are on the Kentucky side of the river, the remaining one. together with the larger portion of the con- PART OV THE CIRCLE AT STONEHENGE. necting embankment is on the Ohio shore. The avenues or covered ways, extendmg from one work to the other, have induced many to assign them to a military origin and a design to protect communication between the different groups. The parallel embankments measure about four feet in height by twenty feet base. They are not far from one hundred and sixty feet apart. They run in three lines from the central group, one leading to the southeast, one to the southwest, and one to the northwest, each one of them pointing to important works on the opposite sides of the river. The total length of the parallels is eight miles, giving sixteen miles of embank- ment. The group upon the third terrace seems to be the grand center from which the parallel lines radiate. The two crescent or horse-shoe-shaped walls constitute the first striking feature which presents itself. Thev are of about the same size and shape, and measure eighty feet in length by seventy in breadth. Enclosing them in part is a circular wall, about five feet high. A mound twenty-eight feet high, one hundred and ten feet base, truncated and surrounded by low circumvallation, stands near, from the summit of which a full view of the entire group may be had. The group 70 on the Kentucky shore consists of four concentric circles, placed at irregu- lar intervals in respect to each other, and cat at right angles by four broad avenues which bear very nearly to the cardinal points. A large mound is placed in the center; it is truncated and terraced anJ has a graded way leading to the summit. On the supposition that this work was in some way connected with the religious rites and ceremonies of the builders, this mound must have afforded a most conspicuous place for the observer. It is easy, vvhile standing on its summit, to people it with a strange priesthood of ancient superstition. About a mile to the west of this work is a small, circular work of exquisite symmetry and proportion. It consists of an embankment of earth five feet high, with an interior ditch twenty-five feet across by six feet deep, enclosing an area ninety feet m diameter, in the cen- ter of which rises a mound eight feet high by forty feet base. A narrow gateway through the parapet and a causeway over the ditch lead to the en- closed mound. A singular work occurs opposite the old mouth of the Scioto on the Kentucky side of the Ohio River. The principle work is an exact rectangle, eight hundred feet square. The walls are twelve feet high, by thirtv-five or fortv feet base, except on the east where thev arise w llEVVtT. E:KENAXT. LONG OAXR0^« • CIKCLES AND AVENUES AT AVEBUKY. above the center of the area about fifty feet. The most singular feature is the outwork which consists of parallel walls leading to the northeast and southwest, each about two thousand one hundred feet long. The parallel to the northeast starts from the center of the main work and reaches to the end of the plateau or terrace. To the left of the plateau is a singular re- doubt or circular enclosure. The embankment of it is heavy, and the ditch, interior to the wall, deep and wide, and the measure from the bottom of the ditch to the top of the wall is twelve or fifteen feet. The enclosed oval area is only sixty feet wide by a hundred and ten feet long. The ob- ject of the enclosure is difficult to divine. Dr. Hempstead who was a resident at Portsmouth, and was familiar with the works, has given the measurements a little more carefully, and has suggested many things in reference io fheir orientation. He says: "The chief peculiarity of the works is that the group in the center is situated on an eminence three hundred and twenty-eight feel above the water level and overlooks the valleys of the two rivers, the Ohio and the Scioto. The circle here has four openings, facing northeast and southeast, and northwest and southwest. Within th*^ circle are two horseshoe for- rftations, twelve feet high and measuring one hundred and five feet at the open ends. The parallel embankments begin here and and run for about 71 four miles southeast to the river, and are continued on the opposite side till they reach a large circular work which was probably a temple of the sun. The outer circle of these works measures six hundred and forty feet, the second one about four hundred feet, the third aboutthree hundred feet. In the center of the innermost circle is a mound which rises forty-five feet above the surrounding surface. It has a spiral graded way leading to the top, which measures fifty feet east to west and seventy-five feet north to south, This was probably the high altar, and ceremonies performed on it could be readily witnessed from the surrounding mounds. The "'temple" consists ol three embankments pierced by open ways leading north, south, east and west. A center mound and four ditches, the last to be passed only by the road leading from the "citadel," the entire length of which was protected by parallel walls, About a mile and a half west of the temple is a circular embankment about six feet high, and an inner ditch twelve feet deep, It has a center mound about seven feet high and the entrance to it is ftom the south. Beside it is an enclosure in the form of an irregular Embankment at Turkey cr^E-k CIRCLES AND AVENUES AT PORTSMOUTH, OHIO. hexagon. It measures one hundred and twenty feet by seventy-five feet. The embankmeut is four feet high and the ditch three feet deep. There are two entrances, facing northwest and southeast. All these have prob- ably some connection with the temple." Dr. Hempstead's view of the orientation was derived from the relative bearing of the so-called temple and the central group on the upper terrace where there was an altar and the horse shoes. He says: "The temple when viewed from the group on the upper terrace on the north side of the river would mark the spot at which the sun arose and a square enclosure situated northwest would mark the sunset of the summer solstice. This last enclosure has also four entrances like those of the tem- ple face north, south, east and west. This enclosure is on the west side of the Scioto River' There are also other parallel embankments, running from the central circle and horse shoe southwest terminating at the river but expanded so as to form a considerable enclosure, with small mounds constructed at the ends as if to lortifv the entrances. Across the river and nearly facing the end of these parallels, is what has been known as the "Old Fort." A careful examination of this work will satisfy any one that it was never intended as a protection against enemies from without 72 C .-■ but was calculated to keep any thing within, after it' had once been de- coyed or placed there. The whole work is commanded from the hills; the wall on the outside is only two or three feet high. An enemy having gained this eminence could annoy those within from all parts of the em- bankments. There are many strong reasons lor believing that the enclo- sure was intended to entrap the large animals which roamed over the hills and ranged through the valleys at the time. The design of these circles and enclosures is difficult to determine but the general opinion is that they were erected for religious purposes, and considering the fact that sun wor- ship was prevalent among the Mound-builders of this region, it is not un- likely that the enclosure on the southwest side was designed to keep cap- tives taken in war, and that the whole group was designed for reli^^ious ceremonies, among which was the sacrifice of human victims, captives taken in war, as an offering to the sun. Comparing these works at Ports- mouth with those at Avebury in Eng- land, we find that the large circles which include the horse shoes corre- spond to the large circle near Silbury Hill, that is the large circle which contains two other circles. The con- centric circle which contains theso-call- CONCENTRIC ORIENTATED CIRCLE. ^^ temple mound corresponds to the circle at Kennet. The enclosure at the mouth of the Sci- oto corresponds to the work at Beckhampton, and the cov- ered ways which connect these circles correspond with the alignments of standing stones which run from the large circle in the two directions, one toward Beckhampton, the other toward Kennet. The space between the parallel ways and the Ohio river corresponds with that at Avebury in- cluded between the large circle and the small stream, in the midst of which rises the artificial mound called Sillbury Hill. These make important resemblances, though they do not prove an identity of form or design. They, however, suggest that there were important ceremonies which were connected with a form of sun worship which had many points of resemblance. M^,.r^ i, to s-,, CHAPTER VI, BOATS, ROADS. BRIDGES AND ANXIExXT CANALS. We have now passed over the various structures which were erected during the pre-historic age. and have seen the progress which vvas made during that age. It will bs noticed that none of these structures reached the stage in which ar- chitecture, technically considered, could be ascribed* to them; for they are in no way ornamented, and do not present any of the architectural principles. Some of them may have indeed anticipated those principles in their form and appearance; for the standing stones have the forms of columns; the conical huts, called Pict-houses. have the form of the arch; the dol- mens have the form of houses with roofs, and some of them have openings, which remind us of the doorways with the pier and lintel, but they all lack the elements which are essential to architectural structures; viz: the true arch; the column with its capital; the cornice, and architrave; and the decoration of the walls and sides. They contain the rudiments w'hich constitute the alphabet, but are never put together in such a shape that we can read in them any story which architecture, as such, would present We may sa\-. then, of architecture, the same that we do of literature, that neither of them really began before the time of history; fo^the use of letters was the means of in- troducing writing, and writing naturally gave birth to history; as the discovery and use of architectural principles, such as the true arch, the decorated column, the cornice, and other elements, gave rise to architecture; at least to that form of architecture which has appeared in historic countries. As to the date in which those changes occurred which brought the rude constructions of the pre-historic races into the condition, or form, which rendered them suitable and worthy of the name of architecture, we have no definite information. And yet, as we examine the different records, here and there, we find that the introduction of letters and the discovery of architectural principles were everywhere contemporaneous. There was, however, always an interval between the pre-historic and the historic which has never been quite filled, and it matters not what country we visit, w^e find the gap still open. No discovery has yet brought the pre-historic so closely into contact with he historic that we can say that they are joined together. The missing links have been sought for in man\' lands, but they are still missing, and the only way to bring the two ages together is to substitute something which we know belongs to both, and has continued through all ages. These substitu- 76 tes we believe may be found in some of the common things which were in use in the very earliest times, and are still in use, but are scarcely noticed because they are so common. We refer now to roads, canals, bridges and boats, all of which are very common at the present day, but were also as common in the days when there was no history, and no architecture, and no art, and scarcely any civilization, but when the people had to have the necessities of life, and did have them, and with them al?o many of the conveniences. They grew out of the necessities of the early periods but they were the last to channe their form, or character, and for that reason, they have lagged beljind the progress of the world, and have always been too insignificant to be worthy of a prominent place in history. There are to be sure many allusions in history to the ancient canals, roads, bridges and boats, but they are merely . incidental to the record, and are not given a place among any of the prominent and conspicuous structures which have ap- peared either '"n the pre-historic, or the historic age. Their association with other things such as houses, fortresses, pal- aces, temples, cities, arches, and gateways, has always been very close, but they were only the humble servitors which were alwavs useful, but seldom noticed, and never considered worthy of mention. Even the terms which are used in connection with them are significant of their humble character; for they are called constructions and mechanical contrivances, rather than architectural works, and are assigned to the prov- ince of civil engineering and mechanics rather than architec- ture or art It is, however to this humble class of constructions that we shall devote a chapter; for they are really the connecting links between the pre-historic and the historic age; and are about the only things which we can positively state have continued through both ages. They may indeed have been at the begin- ning very rude and primitive, yet they served the same purpose at the outset that they do at the present day. The roads upon the land, the canals with the water in them, the bridges which carried the roads across the water, and the boats which con- ducted the tra\ eler through the water, were all at one time very simple and rude contrivances, but they were as useful then as they are now. They have been useful in history; and great events have turned, and been decided according to their presence or their absence. Many archcxological disco\eries have also been made by means of them, and still others are likely to be made To illustrate: it was a road which led up to the Lions Gate at Mycense, w^hich disclosed, not only the peculiar arch with its pier and lintel, and its sculptured lions, but which, followed within the gate, led Schliemann to the Bee- hive tomb, and to the wonderful treasures contained within it. It was a common road which led to the gateway, which opened into the city of Troy, a burnt city, but within the portal of that A DUuOUT AND SAVAGE — PRE-HISTORIC. CLINKER-BOAT FROM NORWAY — HISTORIC. Jit :•■ r 11 ii I'll ii;i llh lllfl m Wn ll>ljl4i,JlJU'"l.Ji|ll|iW'lijiivfl;l7Ja. < O H en u E- o; o z z o < O m 77 . city, and amid the ruins, there were contained those evidences which led Schliemann to identify the place with the famous city about which Homer sang of old, and in which history has been so much interested. The stairway which led from the gate up to the city was a common stairway made of stone ?teps, but it became very significant when the treasure was discov- ered, for it identified the building at the top as the palace of Priam. His keen eye when he examined the relics which were so strangely mingled together, immediately discriminat- ed between those which belonged to the Stone and those which belonged to the Bronze Age, and enabled him to draw the lines between the earlier and the later cities which were erected upon the same spot, though the lines between the his- toric and the pre-historic cities became marvellously less as he, with others, proceeded in the examination of the various layers, and relics which were contained in the ruins. The importance of these common things is shown by other discoveries, for they have often furnished the clew to the dark problems of history. The arch which Robinson discovered in the wall of the temple at Jerusalem was only a fragment, but it showed the character of the bridge w^hich led from the ancient city of David across the Tyropaean Valley to the ancient temple on Mount Moriah. The various sills, or thresholds which Dr. W. H. Bliss found at Jerusalem, far beneath the surface, were or- dinary door-sills which had been worn by the feet of people who crossed them, but the succession of them one above the other, showed the number of houses that had been built on the same spot. The boat which was discovered on the coast of Norway, beneath a mound, was an ordinary boat, such as the Norsemen were accustomed to use, but taken with the canoes and boats which have been exhumed from the peat-beds of Ireland and England and Switzerland it gave the last link in the long chain, and furnished the record of the progress of boat building from the pre-historic up to the historic age. So those constructions which have been brought to light by the researches of antiquarians and archeologists reveal to us the very beginnings of architecture. They may, perhaps, belong to the department of mechanics and engi- neering, as we have said, but they so resemble , and are so associated with architectural works that it is impossible to separate them. The relation of these humble and common things to the events of history is exceedingly important. Xerxes who built his bridge of boats across the Hellespont is said to have thrown chains into .the sea whose waves had broken the bridge, with the vain boast that he had chained the waves, but the absence of a bridge has baffled many a general, and the lack of a road has defeated many an army, while on the other hand an or- dinary canal has enriched a whole country, and the building 78 of a road has often brought the distant parts of a nation in- to harmony with its rulers. We need no excuse for devoting" a cliapter to these sub- jects; for the}'^ are too closely connected with histor}' and throw too much light upon the histor}' of the world to be omitted. Without them, the gap between the pre-historic and the historic age would continue, for very little has so far been discovered that can be relied upon to fill it, but, with them, the succession continues unbroken. AVe may say that the monuments of the Stone Age stand like an abutment upon one side of a gulf; for the successors to them have not yet been discovered. The monuments of the Bronze and the Iron Age stand like an abutment upon the other side, and it is not easy to discover what immediately preceded, but it is through such humble and unobserved things as the bridges, boats and such objects as have been preserved in the graves we find the connecting links, and are able to follow the line from one age to another. These had their beginnings in the Stone Age, but the}' con- tinued in an unbroken succession through the Bronze and Iron Ages, and really connect the pre-historic with historic times. This is the case in all countries, and it matters not Avhat region we enter, we shall find these common things very useful, from the aid they give to us in connecting the past with the present. It may be that some would prefer to be- gin with the Oriental countries, and there seek for the con- necting links betwee the historic and the pre-historic age, but there are so many advantages in taking the American continent for our field of stud}', that we shall draw illus- trations from our own land, and afterwards go to the dis- tant regions, and study such tokens as can be found there. We maintain that there are all about us, those objects which are reall}- the survivals of the pre-historic age, and they are so similar to those Avhich existed thousands of years ago in the east that we may rely upon them for our evidence. 1. Let us then take the boats which were formerly in use on this continent; some of them still used by the Indians of the deep interior for our first objects of study. It is known that the earliest boat was a mere lo^, ch had been dug out with stone tools, and by the aid of fire, was made hollow, and so capable of holding the early navigator, who was clothed with skin, and had no better tool than the stone axe. Such hollow logs have been discovered near the lake dwell- ings of Switzerland , but they resemble those which were com- mon in America. This was the beginning of ship-building and ship-carpentry, and it was a very important beginning. The next stage was one in which the external form was brought into harmony with the interior. A comely shajDe 79 was given to the boat. The log- became not only lighter but more shapely, and more easily propelled. It was not long- before the habit of imitating- the shape of animals as- serted itself in connection with this art of boat building-, and the canoe soon came to have a curved prow, which rose above the water line like the neck and head of a water fowl. A canoe has been dug- out from the peat beds of Switzer- land, which has a prow the exact shape of a bird's head, a hole through the solid end of the proAv representing- the eye of the bird. This shows how early the art instinct laid hold of the savag-e, and trained his hand to g-reat skill in sculpturing the wood into forms and lines of g-race and beauty. The navigators of the inland waters of America were not different from the fishermen who inhabited the shores of the inland lakes of Europe, for both had skill in the art of making- beautiful creations out of the common log-s, which were felled in tne forests. Boats have been exhumed from the island keys off the coast of Florida, which are very interesting- on account of their size and shape. There are boats still in use on the streams of the luterior which are models of beauty. But of all the crafts which the native American was able to construct by the aid of such rude tools as are made of stone, those which are still .seen upon the northwest coast are the most striking; for their beauty and grace. These are large enough to hold a company of navigators, and high enough to with- stand the waves of the stormy ocean. Their graceful bows rise high above the rest of the vessel, and are generally painted and ornamented with some mythological figure, representing some bird or beast which rules the waters. Propelled by the strong hands of the skillful navigators, they fly over the waves like winged birds and no storm ar- ises which intimidates the hearts of those who know how they may outride the waves. Such boats are still common on the northwest coast, but there were formerly boats and canoes equally beautiful and capacious on the inland waters of this continent. A fleet of such boats is said to have attended the Queen or cacique of Cofachiqui who met De Soto as he passed on his famous expedition. "This fleet formed a kind of aquatic procession, the van of which was led by a grand canoe, containing six embassadors, paddled by a large number of Indians, towing after it the state barge of the Princess who reclined on cushions in the stern, under a canopy supported by a lance. She was accompa- nied by eight female attendants. A number of canoes tilled with warriors closed the procession."' Other fleets, contain- ing warriors were seen by DeSoto on the Mississippi River. One of these is described as follows:* One day while at work they perceived a fleet of two hundred canoes •See Irving's Conquest of Florida. 8o descending the river. They were filled with armed Indians, painted after their wild fashion, adorned with feathers of every color, and carrying shields in their hands, made of the buffalo hide, wherewith some sheltered the rowers, while others stood in the prow and poop of the the canoe with their bows and arrows. The canoes of the cacique and chief warriors were decorated with fanciful awnings, under which they sat and gave their or- ders to those who rowed. "It was a pleasing siijcht," says the Portuguese narrator, '• to behold these wild savages in their canoes, which were neatly made and of great size, and, with their awnings, colored feathers and wav- ing standards, appeared like a fleet of jjaileys." In contrast with these are the boats which are now in use among- the fishermen of the Arctic regions. H. H. Bancroft says: Throughout the Aleutian Islands the boats are made wholly of skins of seals or sea-lions, excepting the frame of wood or whale-ribs. Two kinds of skin boats are employed by the natives, a large and a small one. The large boat is tlat-bottomed with the skeleton of whale ribs, covered with seal skins sewed together. The small boat is called a Kyak, and is entirely covered with skins, top as well as well as bottom, saving a hole in the deck which is filled by the navigator. The kvak is about sixteen feet in length, and two feet in width at the middle, and tapers off to a point at either end, is light and strongs and is skillfully handled. The native will twirl his kyak completei\ over, turn a summersault, and by the aid of his paddle, come up safely at the other side. Sleds, sledges and dogs, and land-boats play as an important part en the land as these skm boats do in the water. The runners of the sleds are thin, flexible boards, which are well adapted to the inequalities of the ground. The Haidah canoes are dug out of cedar logs, and are sometimes sixty feet long, six and a half wide, and four and a half deep, accomoda- ting one hundred men. The prow and stern are raised, and often grace- fully carved like a swan's neck, with a monstrous head at the extremity. Boats of the better class have their exteriors carved and painted with the gunwale inlaid in some cases with otter teeth. They are impelled rapidly and safely over the often rough waters of the coast inleis by shovel-shaped paddles. Large i\eets of canoes from the rorth visit \'ictoria each spring for whaling purposes. The Nootka Sound Indians build their canoes from a single cedar trunk. Of the most elegant proportions, they are modeled by the builder with no guide but the eye, and with the most imperfect tools. The form varies among different nations according as to whether the canoe is intend- ed for ocean, sound or river navigation. They rub and polish the outncle and paint the interior with red. "* Californians built their boats out of red wood and cotton- wood trees. They were blunt at both ends and flat bottomed, but what is very remarkable, some of them are built without being touched with a sharp edged tool of any kind.. They are burned off at the required length and hollowed out by fire. A piece of fresh bark, occasionally wet, prevented the flames from extending too far in the wrong direction. They built rafts from bundles of rushes which were lashed together in hammock shapes. They are useful for salmon-spearing, and for fishing. In contrast to th(;se boats of California are the large ranoes which are said by the early Spanish explorers of Mexico to have been so numerous on the lake, which was the scene of so many exploits at the time of the Conquest. These accounts are evidently exaggerated but we quote from Ban- •See Bancroft's Native Races of the Pacific States; Vol. i; p. 166—190. croft's description of them and leave the reader to form his own opinions. "Owing to the position of the city in the midst of the lake, traffic was chiefly conducted by means of canals, which led into almost every ward and had on both sides quays for the reception and landing of goods and passengers. Many of these were provided with basins and locks to retain the water within them, while at the mouth were small buildings which serv- ed as offices for the custom house officials. Bridges, many of which were upwards of thirty feet wide, and could be drawn up so as to cut off com- munication betw'een the different parts. The circumference of the city has been estimated at about twelve miles, and the number of houses at sixty thousand. Fifty other towns, many of them consisting of over three thousand dwellings, were scattered on and around the lake, the shallow waters of wjiich were skimmed by two hundred thousand canoes. Four grand avenues paved with a smooth, hard crust of cement, ran east, west, north and south crosswise, formmg the boundary lines of the four quarters, at the meeting place of which was the grand temple court. Three of these roads connected in a straight line with large causeways leading from the city to the lake shores; constructed by driving in piles, and filling in the intervening spaces with earth, branches and stones. They were broad enough to allow ten horsemen to ride abreast with ease, and were defended by draw bridges and breast works. Half a league before reaching the city this causeway was joined by the Zolac road, coming from Xochamilco. the point of junction being defended by a fort surrounded by a battlemented wall twelve feet high, and provided with two gates through which the road passed. A fourth causeway from Chapultepec served to support the aque- duct which supplied the city with water. The chief resort for the people was the levee, which stretched in a semicircle around the southern part of the city. Here during the day the merchants hustled about their cargoes, and the custom houses while at night the promenaders resorted tliere to enjoy the fresh breezes from the lake. Among the arrangements for the convenience of the public may be mentioned light houses to guide the canoes which brought supplies to the greatjmetropolis. These were erected at different points upon towers and heights. The streets were lighted by burning braziers- placed at conven- ient intervals. A force of a thousand men kept the canals in order. The numerous fountains which adorned the city were fed by the aqueducts, which brought water from the hill of Chapultepec about two miles off, and was constructed upon a causeway of solid masonry five feet high and five feet broad, running parallel to the Tlacopan road. This aqueduct carried a volume of water equal to a man's body, which was conducted by branch pipes to different parts of the town A.t the different canal bridges there were reservoirs into which the pipes emptied. The water was obtained from a fine spring on the summit of the mountain Chapultepec." — (Ban- croft's Native Races). As a relief to these exaggerations we may take the testi- mony of some of the early writers. Peter Martyr says "that the trees were felled vvith copper and flint axes, and drawn upon rollers to their destination. Of nails they had none. They bored holes in beams and probably used wooden bolts Sun-dried bricks were chiefly used in the dwellings, stone for the lower floor of the palaces. Lime was used for mortar. Roofs were covered with clay, straw and palm leaves. The houses were low and detached, each prov^ded with a court and a garden. The streets were narrow. There were no \e- hicles; transportation was done by carriers. At intervals was a market place, with a fountain in the center, and a square filled with temples." 82 Boats do not seem to have served so important a part in Central America or in Peru, as in Mexico; for they were inland empires, or provinces, ano depended more on the products of the soil and of the mines, and their chief feature consisted in their magnificent palaces and temples. Still there were boats along the coast which were even longer and more commodious than those which were seen upon the Great River. One of these was seen b)' Columbus on his second voyage and called forth his wonder. The following is a description of one of these canoes. "Columbus landed at Barracca, one of a group of Islands lying about thirty miles from the northern coast of Honduras. While he was on shore he beheld a canoe which had arrived from a distant voyage. He was struck with its magnitude and contents. It wAs eight feet wide, and as large as a galley, though formed of a trunk of a single tree. In the center was a kind of awning, or cabin of palm leaves, after the manner of the, gondolas at \'enice. Under this sat the cacique with his wife and children. Twenty five Indians rowed the canoe, and it was filled with all kinds of articles of manufactured and natural production. Among various uten- sils and weapons similiar to those already found among the natives he per- ceived others of a much superior kind. There were hatchets for cutting wood, formed of copper, wooden swords with sharpened flints firmly hxed in a groove, and fastened by cords made of the intestines of fiihes. There were copper bells, and a rude crucible designed to melt the copper; various vessels and utensils made of clay, marble and of hard wood; sheets and mantles of cotton, worked and dyed with various colore, and great quanti- ties of cocoa. Their provisions consisted of bread made from maize and roots of various kinds. The women wore mantles with which they wrapped themselves, and the men had cloths ot cotton around their loms. They informed him that they had just arrived from a country rich, cultiva- ted and industrious, situated in the west. They endeavored to impress him with the idea of the wealth and magnificence of the country from which they came." 2. As to the roads which existed in America in pre-hisloric times, very little is known. There were to be sure trails which connected the villages with one another. Some of them were used as thoroughfares, messengers were sent to and fro be- tween the villages. In fact there was a perfect network of trails all over the territory contained in the Mississippi Valley, which for the time was as complicated and extensive as the net- work of railroads is at the present day. These trails, after the advent of the white man, became the routes which were fol- lowed by the emigrants from the seacost to the interior, and became the high wajs and public roads for the different states. The route that was taken by the French explorers in \ ibiting the villages of the Iroquois was that of a trail, and it became the same route which the early settlers of Ohio followed when they were migrating. Another route led from the valle\- of the Schuylkill over the mountains by way of Wilkesbane lo the headwaters of the Alleghany River followed an old Indian trail, but it became the Wilderness Road which the settlers of Ohio took when they migrated from New England and the Atlantic coast. Another route led up the Potomac River to the headwaters of the Kenawha River, and down the river to the valley of the Ohio. This was however, the route which the 83 Indian tribes and the mound-building tribes took, in their mi- grating toward the Atlantic coast and the regions adjoining the Gulf of Mexico. The same route was followed by the Dakotasas they migrated from the region on the Atlantic to the Ohio Valley, and through the Ohio Valley to the prairies of the west. The army of De Soto followed a trail which led to the villages situated in the Gulf states, and finally reached the banks of the Mississippi River, and the region west of the river; in fact it was a trail which marked his route from begin- ning to end. It was a trail also that led Marquette to leave the little fleet of canoes beside the waters of the Great River, and to visit the village which was situated on the Des Moines River, when he was met by the chief who was so reverent in his manner and attitude. There are some hints, however, of more pretentious roadways than these slight trails. The historian of De Soto's party speaks of a wide roadway which GKAIJ KD KOAl AT 1 IKLTUN, OHIO. ed from the water's edge to one of the villages which the party visited, the remains of which have been identified in the earth walls, which are still standing. There are also graded roadways which led from the ancient villages of the mound-builders of the Ohio Valley to the water's edge which are still marked at the present day by double lines of earth- walls, making them among the most conspicuous of the mound- builder's works, though the manner of constructing such cover- ed ways has always been a mystery, It may be that the earth-walls were designed to protect the people who dwelt in the villages from the attacks of wild tribes as they went to their fields or to the river's bank in large binds with their chiefs and ruling men at their head. These roads were at times attended with embankments which served for the landing 84 places of their canoes, and they suggest a picture of the times which corresponds with that given by the pyramid-mounds and \illage enclosures and tcmplc-sites and dance-circles with which the region abounds. We need only to imagine the fleets of canoes drawn up upon the water's edge, and the large bands of gaily decorated Indian warriors emerging from the village circles toward the river, ready to take their departure on some great expedition to neighboring villages, on some great festival occasion, to re- alize something- of the social condition of the people of the time. The "covered wa}'s" which have been described as existing at Portsmouth and as having been used in processions in sac- H^WAEK W5DJE3K.S IKKINI) COUNTY. ■ tt-fytaifstj /t'O ■•^awi E H liafts /ii7i7. COVERED WAYS CONNECTING VILLAGE ENCLOSURES. rificial ceremonies differed from those which connected village enclosures though they were protected in the same way by earthwalls. The best illustrations of roadways and graded ways may be found at Marietta, at Piketon, at Chillicothe and on Paint Creek in Southern Ohio, also in Highbank, on the Scioto River, and at Hopeton, in Ross County, also Newark, Licking County. There is also a covered way or avenue similiar to this at Mount Royal, in Georgia, which was formerly the Cherokee country. De Sotc found such a broad roadway in Florida. Another illustration, however, of a roadway is found in Mexico; for here there was a road which ran from the city in each direction across the lake to the shore. This has already been described, but the best illustration is the one which was 85 situated at Teotihuacan, which was called the path of the Dead. It led from the great pyramid on which was a temple to the sun, between a series of pyramids for a distance of two miles, and was from two hundred to three hundred feet in width. 3. Mention should be made of the contrivances for securing water which were common in this country during the pre-his- toric age. It is well known that in Oriental countries it is one of the difficult problems, and a well, which contained drinking water was valuable enough for tribes to contend with one another to gain the control of them. The contentions between the servants of Jacob, who had dug a well, and the Canaan- ites is mentioned in the Scriptures as an important event. This point is also illustrated by many things on our own con- ^-manrsisciEnii^iH ■w(!D]s.e:s, gr Tit *W»r- *r '■■£ rfjrir »irfa. COVERED WAYS LEADING TO SACRIFICIAL PLACE. tinent. In the first place, we may notice that the villages of the aborigines were always located near some stream, or in the absence of a stream, near some spring of living water. Even among the Pueblos of the far west, this was as common as among the tribes of the Mississippi Valley; for they were sit- uated in an arid region, and the value of water w^is apprecia- ted by them. A description has been given by certain explor- ers of that remarkable cavity in the rock called Montezuma Wells. Around this little body of pure water there were cliff- dwellings hidden amid the niches of the rocks, which were formerly occupied by a people who were agriculturists, and 86 cultivated the soil in the neighborhood, but made their home at this spot for the sake of the water. There are also many localities where cisterns and reservoirs were constructed on the Mesas, and the water, which fell from the clouds was care- full stored there. The City of Mexico was abundantly sup- pliedvvith water from the lakes which abounded there, but it is one sign of the advancement of the people there that a fountain was constructed upon a distant mountain-top, and the water was conducted from it to the city, for the supply of the palace. The canals which formerly existed on this continent are also worthy of notice. These were far more artificial than the springs, or lakes, or wells, and for this reason have been oftener described. 4. The aqueducts of America are also worthy of mention in this connection. It is well known that there were aqueducts in Peru before the times of the conquest. These showed MONTEZUMA WELLS much evidence of skilful engineering and mechanical con- struction. They supplied the cities with an abundance of water. They remind us of the reservoirs and aqueducts which supplied the City of Mexico with water before the time of Cortez' conquest. In Central America there was a scarcety of drinking water, and the natives were obliged to resort to the natural reservoirs, called "cenotes," which were contained in the caves with which that country abounds, but the rulers had extensive cisterns connected with the palaces, from which they gained their supply of Water. These cisterns have been ransacked recently by Mr. H. C. Mercer, and many highly finished specimens of pottery have been recovered from them. 5. The canals which were constructed in America in pre-his- toric times are very interesting, perhaps as interesting as the 87 boats. There were a few canals in Florida the object of which is unknown, though they may have been designed to connect the waters of the ocean with the St. John River, or with the Lagoons between the two. There were also canals on the north west coast and on the California coast which connected some artificial harbors with the ocean at high tide. These, however, are insignificant when compared wkh those which formerly existed in the Interior, the most important of which were constructed by the Pueblos and the Cliff-dwellers. De- criptions of these have been published in the work on the Cliff-dwellers, and we shall therefore pass them by, merely re- ferring to them as worthy of study. These canals were used for irrigating purposes, and were very useful, the most im- portant one being that which was situated in the Verde Valley. idOUNO • "NOLI. CLt**l CltEE'^. IRRIGATING CANAL IN ARIZONA The age of this canal is unknown, but it is old enough to have been affected by the changes of nature, and antedated the de- posit of alluvial soil. Reservoirs and convenient basins stored the water. The canal had several decided bends. The cut shows the ancient ditch, just where it turned southward and bassed under the bluff. The plate shows where it passed the bluff, and turned toward the Verde River. Other canals have been described by F. H. Cushing, who says that they may be followed for many miles, and were wide enough and deep enough for the transportation of timber and even grain. They varied in width from ten to thirty feet, and in depth from three to twelve feet. Their banks were terraced in such a form as to secure a central current. The fall was about one foot to the mile. The ancients constructed great reservoirs to store the excessive water when the river was high, for conserv- ing the waters of the sudden rains on the mountains and hills. The people built dams in the ravines, and large reservoirs in 88 the neighboring hills. From these reservoirs the waters were allowed to flow gradually over the fields.* There were contrivances for storing water, for domestic purposes, which show the skill as well as the necessities of the cliff-dwellers. One of these shown in the plate, consisted in excavating a cistern in the rock, high up in the sides of the cliff, but near the cliff-houses, then making use of the ledge which led out toward the stream, and from that point drawing water out of the stream and filling the cistern with it, making use of some vessel and cord which resembled the bucket and rope of historic times, though they were made out of fibre and clay by the pre-historic people. The canals of Mexico are fully as interesting as those of New Mexico. These have been described by the Spanish ex- plorers and Mr. Bancroft has compiled their account in his interesting volume. The aqueducts and canals of Peru are worthy of attention. These have been described by E. G. Sauier as follows: "Even in these parts where the rain falls six month of the year, irriga- ting canals are used. The people economized every rood of ground by building their towns t^j\'\' ^ and habi t ation s in places unfit for culti- vation, but they ter- raced the hillsides and mountains, and led the mountain springs and torrents down- wards until they were lost in the valley. These acequias are of great length, extend- ing in some places hundreds of miles, sustained by high in some cases con- It is on the They 800 FEET TO ONE rNCH. CANAL AND RESERVOIR AT PECOS 'walls of masonry, cut in the living rock, and ducted in tunnels through the sharp spurs of the mountains desert Pacific coast of Peru that we find the most extensive works not only constructed dams at different elevations, with side weirs to deflect the water over the higher slopes of the valley, but they built enormous reservoirs high up among the mountains, as well as down nearer the sea. One of these reservoirs in the valley of the Xepena is three-quarters of a mile long, half a mile broad, and consists of a massive dam of stone, eighty feet thick at the base, and carried across a gorge between two lofty hills. It was supplied by canals, oue starting fourteen miles up the valley, and the other from a living spring five miles distant. The Bath of the Incas and seats cut m the rock, the famous lake and islands in the lake, are fea- tures which render the citv of Titicaca verv famous. Here was a palace which stood on an artificial terrace, while the steep hill bends around it in a half-moon, m graceful curves, also terraced. The Inca's Chair is also a remarkable curiosity. Here a mass of sandstone one hundred feet long, twenty feet high, contained on its summit a chair which was cut out of the solid rock with steps or seats also cut out of the rock leading to it on both sides." There are many other contrivances throughout the and regions for conveying and storing water, and for irrigating the soil, and even in supplying the villages with water-(see cut.) o > o w o Z o Z > w > H ea O o < O ca < H o W H M I— I U < 89 The study of the various constructions which were used for the distribution of water, and for the conveyance of freight, and for travelling on this continent, as compared with those com- mon in Oriental countries, is very instructive. These contrivances were more abundant in the arid regions, where the pueblos and cliff dwellers had their home, but they wc^e also common in Mexico, Central America, and Peru, and were used for domestic purposes, and for the supply of foun- tains and gardens, for fields, and other purposes. Canals were built by the Pueblo tribes and exter.ded from ten to. eighty miles, and were used both for irrigating and transporting timber and logs to the villages. Here the villages were at times placed at the end of canals, but in other places they were scattered along the sides of the canals or acequias. There were in the valley of the Gila and Salado acequias, along which continuous villages were scattered which drew the water from them for irrigating the soil, some of which remain to the present time. The ancient culture which flourished in these villages is shown by the ruins of ih^Grcat Houses, bordered on both sides by ample fields and gardens, which were irrigated by canals which conveyed water from the streams. There is no doubt that the degree of civilization reach- ed by the Pueblos was ow- ing to the fact that per- manent villages were estab- lished along these canals, and the irrigating of the soil gave subsistence to the people, .notwithstanding the and climate that prevailed. Irrigating ditches are still in use in New Mexico and Sonora, but ancient ditches are sometimes found several feet below these. Garden beds are very common in these regions. These garden beds were sometimes on the sides of bluffs, the face of which had been converted into terraces. There are creeks and streams far southwest among the Sierra Madre mountains, with stone terraces built across small valleys, which resemble stair- cases. This region was occupied by a tribe of cave dwellers, who built great cylindrical store-houses, in which they stored grain which was raised in the valleys. Mr. Carl Lumholtz says: "On the table lands and hills are to be seen ancient ruins of exten- sive villages rough cyclopcean walls of small houses built clgse together; while on the broad flat river banks below, there are large areas with a net- work of low stone dikes for spreading the water of the aroyas when irrigat- ing the ancient garden fields. Arrow heads of obsidian, pieces of pottery and mill stones; were found near these pueblos. Earlier than the Apaches PUEBLO CANAL. 90 there lived in these woodlands other Indians of an agricultural house- building race, now extinct. Most of the ancient pueblos are found on the . ridges of the very mountain crests, with commanding views of the surround- ings. On the steep mountain slopes there are astonishing numbers of small terraces looking like giant steps, built one above the other, which were used for ancient garden beds, and were formed by a simple wall of boulders from 6 to 2o feet high. The most remarkable structures were the cupola- shaped jars which were lound among the cave dwellings and served the purpose of storing corn." There were also in Central America cenotes or underground wells around which many of the ancient cities were erected. These cenotes were natural ponds which were surrounded by the rocks, and were reached by paths or stairways. M. D. Charna\- has described two such wells or cenotes at Chichen-Itza. He says: "The situation of Chichen is due probably to the great cenotes which- AQUEDUCT AT SEGOVIA. supplied the city with abundant water, and which differ from the under- ground passages noted in other parts of the State, being great natural pits- of great depth with perpendicular sides. The Sacred Cenote is oblong in shape, and measures from 130 to 165 feet; the walls 65 feet high, and is per pendicular throughout. Hither pilgrims repaired and offerings were made, for Chichen was a holy city, and among her shrines the cenote held a con- spicuous place, as the following passage triim Landa will show 'From the courtyard of the theatre a good wide road led to a well some little distance b' vond, into which in times of drought the natives used to throw men as an offering to their deities. I also found sculptured lions, which, from the nianner In which they were fashioned, must have been wrought with metal 11 struments; besides two statues of considerablt. size with peculiar head, earrings and the mantle around their loins.' The statue of Tlalcc, who was tl e god of water, was found at Chichen-Itza, showing that it was a sacred place becaust. of the abundance of water. This statue has carved on the surface, aquatic plants, and two frogs and a fish. This represents a man- lying on his back, his legs drawn up, and his feet on the ground, and hold- ng in both hands a vase." I %:':'■ "^'^V^saws'* l^k ^^V o > a en •j -- L__ qi There were in America, fountains and aqueducts which at- tracted the attention of the early discoverers, some of which have been described by the early explorers. Thes.e aqueducts did not equal those which were so common in ancient historic lands, yet a comparison between the two, will reveal to us the social status of the prehistoric people. Strabo said the Romans built great aqueducts in their provinces. That of Metz in Belgic Gaul, is among the most remarkable. The aqueducts on the Island of Mirylene, of Antioch, of Segovia of Spain, and of Constantinople, are to be mentioned. The cut repre- sents the aqueduct of Segovia, and shows the manner in which such structures were erected by the Romans. The following is a description of the aqueducts in Mexico: "Water was brought over hill and dale to the top of the mountain, by means of a solid stone aqued".ct. Here it was received m a large basin, having in its center a great rock, upon which were inscribed in a circle the WATER BASIN IN MEXICO. hieroslyphics representing the years that had elapsed since Nezahual- covotl's birth, with a list of his most noteworthy achievements. * * * From this basin the water was distributed through the garden in two. streams, one of which meandered down the northern side of the hill, and the other down the southern side. There were likewise several towers or columns of stone having their capitals made in the shape of a pot from which protrude plumes of feathers, which signified the name of the place. Lower down, was the colossal figure of a winged beast called by Ixtlilxo- chetl. a lion lying down, with its face toward the east, and having in its mouth a sculptured portrait of the king; this statue was generally covered with a canopy adorned with gold and feather work. A little lower yet there were three basins of water, emblematic of the great lake, and on the borders of the middle one three female figures were sculptured on the solid rock, representing the heads of the confederated states of Mexico, Tezcucoand TIacopan. Upon the northern side of the hill was another pond; and here upon the rock was carved the Coat of Arms of the city of Tulan, which was formerly the chief town of the I'oltecs. Upon the southern slope of the -hill was yet another pond, bearing the coat of arms and the name of the city of Tena- yuca, which was formerly the head town of the Chichimecs. From this basin a stream of water flowed continually over the precipice, and being dashed into spray upon the rocks, was scattered like rain over a garden of 02 •odorous tropical plants. In the garden were two baths, duf? out of one large piece of porphyry, and a flight of steps also cut from the solid rock; worked and polished so smooth that they looked like mirrors, and on the front of the stairs, were carved the years, months, dav, and hour in which information was brought to King Nezahualcoyotl of the death of a certain lord of Huexotzinco, whom he esteemed very highly, and who died while the said staircase was being built. The garden is said to have been a per- fect little paradise. The gorgeous flowers were all transplanted from the distant terra caliente; marble pavillions. supported on slender columns, -with tesselated pavements and sparkling fountains, nestled among the shady groves and afforded a cool retreat during the long summer davs. At the end of the garden, almost hidden by the groups of gigantic cedars and cypresses that surrounded it, was the royal palace, so situated that while its spacious halls were filled with the sensuous odors of the tropics, blown in from the gardens, it remained sheltered from the heat." "Montezuma's Baths" have also been spoken of. These were situated upon the mountain top, and were surrounded by seats vvhich probably resembled those of the Incas in Peru. In connection with them there was an aqueduct that led across the valley. The following is a description from Bancroft: '•About three m.les eastward from Tezcuco is the isolated rocky hill which rises with steep slopes in conical form to the height of pernaps 600 feet above the plain, a portion on the side of the hill is graded very much as if intended for a modern railroad, forming a level terrace with an em- bankment from 60 to 200 feet high connecting the hill with another, three quarters of a mile distant, and then extends toward th.^ mountain ten or fifteen miles distant, the object of which was to support an aqueduct or pipe ten inches in diameter, made of baked clay or blocks of porphyry. At the termination of the aqueduct on the eastern slope of Tezcocinyo is a basin hewn from the living rock of reddish porphyry, known as "Montezuma's Bath," four feet and a-half in diameter, and three feet deep, which received water from the aqueduct, with seats cut in the rock near it." Several persons have described this aqueduct, amongr them Brantz Mayer, and Edward Tylor, who have spoken of the per- fection of the work. The seats which adjoined it have also been described by Col. Mayer, as follows: "The picturesque view from this spot over small plains, set in the frame of the surrounding mountains and glens which border the eastern side of Tezcoclngo, undoubtedly made this rectss a resort for royal personages for whom these costly works were made. From the surrounding seats they enjoyed a delicious prospect over this lovely but secluded scenery, while in the basin at their feet were gathered the waters of the spring. On the northern slope is another recess bordered by seats cut in the living rock, and traces of a spiral road and a second circular bath, and sculptured blocks on the summit." Bancroft speaks of the rtfins of a large building, a palace whose walls still remain eight feet high, and says that the whole mountain had been covered with palaces, temples, baths, and hanging gardens. There were also other aqueducts which supplied the gardens and fed the fountains which so beautified the various cities. These have been described by the Spanish writers. Peter Martyr, describing the Palace at Iztapalapan, writes: "That house also had orchards, finely planted with divers trees, and herbs, and flourishing flowers, of a sweet smell. Thereare also in the same j^reat standing pools of water with many kinds of fish, in vvhich divers kind NATIVE BOATS AN;D MODERN STEAMER IN SITKA. '^'^Wrs" OuiUuiiozrn tak^n iii Ins Hctrcnt h\ -^—. — —'■'_- *;;f^; '----' MEXICAN BOATS AND SPANISH BRIGANTINES. CO H O m 'A P w 03 u w Q w u u z < Q <■ "tn W O Q ftj: Q < CO Q 93 ot all sorts of waterfowl are swimming. To the bottom of these lakes a man» may descend by marble steps brought far off. They report strange things a walke inclosed with nettings of canes, lest any one should freely come within the voyde plattes of ground, or to the fruits of the trees. Those hedges are made with a thousand pleasant devises, as it falleth out in those delicate purple crosse alJeyes, of myrh rosemary or boxe, al very delightful to behold." The roads and bridges which formerly existed in Me.xico,- Central America and Peru are also worthy of attention. These roads were used mainly for the passage of armies. Many ancient writers have described the towns which were scattered through the province of Mexico and the roads that led to them. The towns extended over a comparatively large surface, owing to the fact that the houses were low and de- tached, and each provided with a court and garden. The larger cities seem to have been laid out on a regular plan, but the streets were narrow. Indeed there was no need of wider ones as all transportation was done by carriers, and there were no vehicles.. At inteivals a market place with a fountain in the center, a square filled with temples or a line of shady trees re- lieved the monotony of the long rows of low houses. De Solis has described the cities which were situated in the midst of the lake,* and the causeways which connected them, and its bridges and towns, and the appearance of Montezuma, the king, when he came forth in his palanquin to meet Cortes. He says: "Tezcuco was, in those days, one of the greatest cities of that empire. The principal front of the buildings was extended upon the borders of a spacious lake in a delightful situation, where the causeway of Mexico began. In this part, the causeway was about twenty feet broad, made of stone and lime, with some works on the surface. In the middle of the way, there was another town of about 2,000 houses called Ouitlavaca: and. be- cause it was founded in the waters they called it Ve«zuela, or little Venice. From this place he discovered the largest part of the lake and vai ious towns and causeways. The towers, adorned by pinnacles, seemed to swim upon the waters, with trees and gardens out of their proper element; besides a multitude of Indians, who were approaching in their canoes to behold the Spaniards; and much greater was the number ot those who showed them- selves on the battlements of the houses, and in the most distant galleries; a sight extremely beautiful, and a novelty surprising beyond imagination. The next morning they found themselves upon the same causeway, being in that part wide enough for eight horses to march in front. The army consisted then of about 450 Spaniards, 6,000 Indians, Tlascalans, Zempoalan>, and other confederates. They continued their march to the city of Iztacpalapa, a place far exceeding the rest in the height of its towers and manner of building; the citv consisted of nearly 10,000 houses, two and three stories high, part of which are built upon the lake, and stretched along the shores, * * * The lodging of the Spaniards was prepared in the Prince's own palace, where they were all under cover: The palace was large, and well built, with distinct apartments both above and below; among which were many chambers whose roofs were flat, and of cedar. There were in Iztacpalapa many fountains of sweet and wholesome water, conveyed by several aqueducts from the neighboring mountains, through a great number of gardens, large and well cultivated. In the middle ot the garden was a pond of fresh water, encompassed with a wall of quadrangular form made ♦The plate and cuts represent tde roads and bridges which the Spaniard saw on the Lake of Mexico, but the artist seems to have taken bis pattern from European ratherthan native Ame- rican models. 94 of stone and lime, with stairs on all sides to the bottom. It was so large that each side contained 400 paces, a work well worthy of a prince. * * * * They had two leagues of causeway hence to Mexico, and took the morning before th'^'m. He continued his march in the accus- tomed order, and leaving in the one side the city of Magiscatzingo, situ- ated on the water, and on the other that of Cuyocan. upon the causeway, besides a great many towns, which they saw at a distance upon the lake; they discovered as soon as they drew somewhat nearer (and not without admiration) the great city of Mexico, elevated to a vast degree above all the rest, and carrying an air of d 'minion in the pride of her buildings. They had marched little less than half way, when they were met by more than four thousand nobles and officers of the city, who came to receive them, and whose compliments delayed their march a considerable time, though they only paid their obeysance and then advanced before the troops toward Mexico. In the march, a little before the city was a bulwark of stone, with MONlEZUMA MEETING CORTES. two small castles on the sides, which took up all the ciuseway; the gates opened upon aiother part of the causewav, terminated bv a drawbridge which defen'ied the entrance of the city with a second fortification. As soon as the nobles whD accompinied thern had passed to tli^ o'lher side of the bridge, they m ide a lane, for the army to march, falling back on each sile. and th^n there appeared a very larg-e and spacious street, with great houses uniform'y bnilt; the windows and battlements w*re full of spectators, but the street entirely empty. And they informed Cortes that it was so ordered, because Montezuma resolved to receive him in person, in order to distinguish him bv a particular mark of favor: a little after which Cortes saw the first troop of the royal retinue; which consisted of abo ut two hundred noblemen of Montezuma's family, clothed in one livery, with great (plumes and feathers, alike in fashion and color. Then there appeared a larger company, better dressed and of greaer 95 dignity, in the midst of which was Montezuma, carried upon the shoulders of his favorites in a chair of burnished gold, which jjlittered through the various works of feather?, placed in handsome proportion about it, which in some measure seemed to outvie the cost of the metal. Four persons of great distin. tion followed his chair, holding over him a canopy made of in- terwoven green feathers, so put together that they formed a kind of web, with some ornaments of silver. For his apparel Montezuma wore a mantle of the finest cotton, tied c relessly on his shoulders, covering the greatt st part of his body, with the end trailing on the ground adorned wnh different jewels of gold, ptar s and precious stones His crown was a mitre ot }.'/ --> ./ i .:J ^<*/,, SKETCn MAFOF DEMOFtEY KEY r-w"***' < Q o jKil01W>Il^ , /yT«>r^-^ -i£a_ 99 works and their bearing upon historic times. We do not claim for them any architectural character, for they are generally rude constructions destitute of all ornament and hardly pre- senting even the elements of art. Nor do we, on the other hand, class them with the earliest historic dwellings, for there were rude dwellings long after there were kitchen middens, and it is probable that the huts which were erected by hunter tribes upon the land, may have continued to be occupied long after the shell heaps by the sea. These huts, however, which were hidden in the forest, were built of unsubstantial material and soon perished. But those which were built by the sea were surrounded by the heaps of shell, which are very endur- ing, and the result is, the latter are preserved for our examina- tion, while the former have passed away. The distribution of the kitchen middens, lake-dwellings, and various maritime structures, has given us a good opportunity for examining them, especially as there are structures resembling them still occupied, and from them we may learn the stage of society which was then represented. Still, it would be well to remember that what is ancient in one country is modern in another, and that the same structures which have been dis- covered on the coast of America in recent times, existed in Europe and Asia several thousand years ago. It may be said of all these structures, especially of those upon the sea coast, that they help us to trace the line of migration which was taken by the early inhabitants of the world, and throw con- siderable light upon the distribution of mankind throughout the world. Prof. O. T. TMason has spoken of the quest for food as being one cause for the distribution of the population throughout the globe. He has traced the migrating route which a sea-faring people may have taken, when passing from the islands of the Pacific, along the east coast of Asia and by way of the Aleutian Islands finally reaching the Northwest coast. The monuments which indicate their route, or the route taken by subsequent people, may be recognized in the dolmens which are found in India. Japan, and Peru. The kitchen middens evidently pre- ceded these, though it is a question whether they were left by a migratory people, or by a people who came down from the interior and made their homes on the sea coast. Prof. Worsaae has also spoken of the migrations which took place in Europe. He says: In the first settlement of Europe the fringe of coasts and nearest river courses had everywhere played a leading part. So long as hunting and fishing formed the most important resources of the settlers and vast stretches of coast were still untrod by human foot, the primeval inhabi- tants, unaccompanted by any domestic animal save the dog, would have no great difficultv in spreading further, or flitting from place to place, when they began to be pinched for food. A very long time must have elapsed ere' the more highly developed races, steadily advancing from south and west, were in a condition — as lake-dwellings, stone graves, and other memorials show— to spread from the Mediterranean coasts over Switzer- 100 land, part of South Germany, the whole of France, Belgium, Holland, the British Isles, and Northwestern Germany. The last period of the Stone Age in the high north on the Baltic North Sea and the Atlantic was, there- fore, even in its earliest stage most probably contemporaneous with the victorious advance and first mdependent development of the Bronze Age in more southern lands, particularly on the Mediterranean.* The maritime .structures of the earth give rise to the inquiry as to the races inhabiting the sea coast and the islands, whether they developed from savagery in these centers and invented their own improvements, or received these inventions from other tribes, who had migrated from other parts, having been driven out by more civilized people. There are arguments for both theories. The similarities of the pile-dwellings and the close analogies between the maritime constructions favor the idea of a borrowed civilization, or one that was introduced by migrations. Of this Prof. Worsaae also says: In the South Sea Islands examples have recently been met with show- ing that the Stone Age people, under exceptionally favorable circumstances have raised themselves to a not inconsiderable height of culture in com- parison to the wretched savages in their vicinity. Rude stone objects identically similar in form and evidently from a corresponding stage of culture can also be shown in cave, field, and coast finds from south Europe, as well as in finds from the district of Thebes in Egypt, from Japan and from the shell heaps of America. Neither in the refuse heaps of Denmark, nor in the shell heaps of Japan or America is the least trace found of a fuller developmerit and change in ornamental objects, Besides feathers and other trophies of the chase, usually affected by savage races, their ornaments appear to have been confined chiefly to animal's teeth, The first mhabitants of Denmark, or of southwest Scandanavia, are, therefore, to be compared most closely with the long-vanished savage races, which formed corresponding refuse heaps on the coasts of Japan and America, especially along the river margins of the latter; or with the partly still existing inferior peoples in South America, off the coast of Japan, and in the South Seas, who support themselves in the same way on shell-fish fishing and hunting. Certainly nowhere else have such rude peo- ples, as a rule, been in the habit of rearmg great permanent monuments to preserve for thousands of years, the earthly remains of their dead. * * It is well known that the Caribs and Andaman Islanders and others, both at high festivals and daily meals, use certain portions of their pro- visions, together with implements, ornaments, etc., as offerings to their gods.' There is, therefore, nought to hinder the belief that a northern peo- ple on nearly the same level may have remembered their gods in a similar manner. The oldest articles of stone and bone discovered in the extreme north of Asia may have an apparent likeness to Stone Age objects from Finland, north Russia and the north of Asia, but both in material and form they differ entirely from the early Stone Age antiquities of southern Scan- danavia. They constitute a distinct Arctic group in the European Stone Age.t It is with these thoughts in mind that we take up the study of the maritime structures of the world, especially those which are of the most primitive and rudest form, and passing on from these to others that are more advanced and elaborate in char- acter. I. We begin with the kitchen middens or shell heaps. •See "Pre-History of the North," page 20. tSee "Pre-History of the North," page 17. 101 The description of the kitchen middens of Denmark, when compared with those which have already been given of the shell heaps on the Northwest coast, will show to us how long- continued was this peculiar mode of life, even for several thousand years. It shows, also, that different classes of peo- ple — hunters and agriculturalists— were in prehistoric times, as in modern times, in the habit of going to the sea coast and for a time dwelling there, leaving the dd-bris of the camps as signs of their presence. The fire-beds, fragments of pottery, and other relics, show that the people were accustomed to domestic life and were, perhaps, skillful in erectmg habitations for them- selves, The difference between the relics in the kitchen mid- dens in Denmark and those on the Northwest coast, shows that a higher grade of progress had been reached. This is shown especially by the superior boats which were constructed out of logs, by using rude stone axes. No boats have been discovered in these kitchen middens, but so many have been found in the mounds on the coast of Denmark and Norway and Sweden, and in the bogs of Ireland, as to convey the idea that they were a sea-going people, and were skillful navigators. Deep inlets of the sea, and not a few river courses, opened a com- paratively easy approach from the coasts and neighboring islands, leading through the woods to fresh water lakes in the Interior, teeming with fish, and at the same time to new and by no means unimportant resources. On the other hand, the necessity of gaining a livelihood does not appear to have driven the new settlers far from the coasts to the islands lying out in the more open sea. These facts show that the inhabi- tants of the world were accustomed to resort to the sea for subsistence and became navigators at a very early date; taking this for granted we may learn how the population of the globe became distributed. As to the race which constructed the kitchen middens on the coasts of Europe, Asia, and America, it is impossible to determine, but it is supposed that the ancient Turanian people who were the first inhabitants of Mesopotamia, antedating" the Semitics, were of the same race as the Finns, and it is not im- possible that they made their way across Behring Strait, or the Aleutian Islands to the Northwest coast; while another branch were perhaps the ancestors of the Basques, or the Britons, who made their way across the Atlantic to the north coasts of America, and so southward. As to the distribution of the kitchen middens, the follow- ing quotation from Nadaillac will give us some information: The kitchen middens, or heaps of kitchen refuse— such was the name given to these shell mounds— could not have been the natural deposits left bv the waves after storms, for in that case they would have been mixed with quantities of sand and pebbles. The conclusion is inevitable, that man alone could have piled up these accumulations, which were the refuse flung away day by day after his meals. The kitchen middens confirmed 102 in a remarkable manner the opinion of Steenstrup, and everywhere a num- ber of important objects were discovered. In several places the old hearths were brought to light. They consisted of flat stones, on which were piles of cinders, with fragments of wood and charcoal. It was now finally proved that these mounds occupied the site of ancient settlements, the inhabitants of which rarely left the coast, and fed chiefly on the motlusca which abounded in the waters of the North Sea. * * * The earliest inhabitants of Russia placed their dwellings near rivers above the highest flood-levels known to or foreseen by them. Virchow has recognized on the shores of Lake Burtneck in Germany, a kitchen midden belonging to the earliest Neolithic times, perhaps even to the close of the Paleolithic period. He there picked up some stone and bone implements, and notices on the one hand the absence of the reindeer, aud on the other, as in Scandinavia, that of domestic animals. But in this case, the home of the living became the tomb of the dead, as numerous skeletons lay beside the abandoned hearths. Similar discoveries have been made in Portugal: shell heaps having been found thirty-five to eighty feet above the sea-level. Here, also, excavations have brought to light several different hearths, and in many of the most ancient kitchen middens in the valley of the Tigris were found crouching skeletons, proving that here, too, the home had be- come the tomb. * * * It is, however, chiefly in America that these attract attention, for there huge shell mounds stretch along the coast of New Foundland, Nova Scotia, Massachusetts, Louisiana, California, and Nicaragua. We meet with them again near the Orinoco and the Mississippi, in the Aleutian Islands, and in the Guianeas in Brazil, and in Patagonia; on the coasts of the Pacific, as on those of the Atlantic. * * * The kitchen middens of Florida and Alabama are even more remarkable. There is one on Amelia Island which is a quarter of a mile long, with a medium depth of three feet and a breadth of nearly five. That of Bear's Point covers sixty acres of ground, that of Anecerty Point, one hundred, and that of Santa Rosa, five hundred. Others taper to a great height. Turtle Mound near Smyrna is formed of a mass of oyster shells, attaining a height of nearlv thirty feet, and the height of several others is more than forty feet. In all of them bushels of shells have already been found, although a great part of the sites they occupy are still unexplored; huge trees, roots, and tropical creepers having in the course of m,-uiy centuries, covered them with an almost impenetrable thicket. At Long Neck Branch is a shell mound that extends for half a mile, and in California there is a yet larger kitchen midden; it measures a mile in length and half a mile in width, and, as in similar accumulations, excavations have yielded thousands of stone hammers and bone imple- ments The shell mounds of which we have so far been speaking are all near the sea, but there is yet another, consisting entirely of marine shells, fifty miles beyond Mobile.* We conclude, then, that the coasts of America are as good, a place for the study of the beginnings of architecture as Denmark, or even the regions of Mesopotamia. The -people may have belonged to a different race, but it may help us to get a very different idea of the aborigines of our country, if we associate them with the fishermen of Europe, for those in America were even more advanced in the art of boat building and house building, than were the ancient people of Europe. We have elsewhere described the houses which were erected amid the shell heaps on the Northwest coast, and shall now turn to those on the coast of Florida. The explorations of Mr. W. H. Moore and Mr. A. E. Douglas have brought out many new facts. •See " Prehistoric Peoples." o p. z w > r r > z o H K W ?; > H > o o o u < < a a < u 103 Mr. A. E. Douglas also discovered several canals in the shell mounds— one of them five miles long; another canal con- nected a lagoon, through which the interior waters were ex- pected to find an outlet to the sea. He speaks of the impos- ing appearance of the shell mounds and thinks that some of them were designed as lookouts or sites of houses. He refers, also, to elevated roadways leading from the mounds to a lake or water course or village, thus proving that the mounds may have been sites for houses. Mr. William Bartram speaks of Mt. Royal as a magnificent mound, twenty feet high and 300 feet in diameter, as attended with a roadway. He says: A noble Indian highway leads from the great mound in a straight line three-quarters of a mile, through an awful forest of live oaks. It was terminated bv palms and laurel magnolias in the maze of an oblong arti- ficial lake, which was on the edge of a greater savannah. This general highway was about fifty yards wide, sunk a little below the common level and the earth thrown up on each side, making a bank about two feet high. There are sand mounds on the coast of Florida, which to all appearances were erected at the same time as the kitchen middens. There are on the Northwest coast kitchen middens in which are canals, harbors for canoes, and the remains of houses which resemble those which are still occupied by the Klamath Indians, These are evidently modern, but they show that the same mode of life and the same customs continued for thousands of years, even when there was no connection between the people. The same stage of society may have been reached by the people on the coast of America much later than those on the coast of Europe; the fact, however, that so much time elapsed between the kitchen middens of Nor- way and Denmark and those on the coasts of America, shows how prolonged this stage of semi-civilization has been upon the earth. H. Another class of coast structures has been recently brought to light off the coast of Florida. We shall, therefore, take up the description of these as excellent specimens of the skill of the prehistoric people. They have been associated with [the sand mounds and shell heaps of Florida, but they show a more advanced stage, and should probably be classed with the mounds and earthworks of the Gulf States, tor it is the opinion of Dr. D. G. Brinton, Prof. F. W. Putnam and others that they were erected by the same people. The object of these remarkable "shell keys " is unknown, but they appear to have been walls, which surrounded the sea- girt habitation of an ancient and unknown people. The " reef raised sea walls of shell" surrounded central, half natural lagoons, or lake courts, with the " many-channeled enclosures," which, when surrounded by the dwellings of the people who erected them, must have made the island resemble a modern Venice. The houses were probably constructed altogether of 104 wood, and perhaps covered with thatched roofs. The canals within the lagoon were dug out of low, swampy ground, and -were lined with earth walls, which were covered with a tangled forest; making the ancient village resemble the villages on the coast of Benares or the Philippine Islands, more than the European Venice. The islands lack the outside reefs which are found in the Caroline Islands, and there are no such artificial breakwaters, as are there; nor are there any such massive stone enclosures and shrines. These were discovered and described by Mr. F. H. Gushing. The following is his account of his explorations and a descrip- tion of their character and appearance: I was not much delayed in securing two men and a little fishing sloop, such as It was, and in sailing forth one glorious evening late in May, with intent to explore as many as possible of the islands and capes of Charlotte Harbor, Pine Island Sound, Caloosa Bay, and the lower more open coast as far as Marco. The astonishment I felt in penetrating into the interior of the very first encountered of these thicket-bound islets, may be better imagined than described, when, after wadmg ankle deep in the slimy and muddy shoals, and then alternately clambering and floundering for a long distance among the wide-reaching interlocked roots of the mangroves, 1 dimly behtld in the somber depths of this sunless jungle of the waters, a long, nearly straight, but enormous embankment of piled-up conch shells. 13eyond it were to be seen (as in the illustration given) other banks, less high, not always regular, but forming a range of distinct enclosures of various sizes and outlines; nearly all of them open a little at either end, or at opposite sides, as if for outlet and inlet. Threading this zone of boggy bins, and leading in toward a more cen- tral point, were here and there open ways like channels. They were formed by parallel ridges of shells, increasing in height toward the interior, until at last they merged into a steep, somewhat extended bench, also of shells, and flat on the top like a platform. Here, of course, at the foot of the platform, the channel ended in a slightly broadened cove, like a landing place; but a graded depression or pathway ascended from it and crossed this bench or platform, leading to and in turn climbmg over, or rather through another and higher platform, a slight distance beyond. In places, off to the side on either bank, were still more of these platforms, rising terrace-like, but very irregularly, from the enclosures beiow to the founda- tions of great level-topped mounds, which, like worn-out, elongated and truncated pyramids, loftily and imposnigly crowned the whole; some of them to a height of nearly thirty feet above the encircling sea. The bare patches along the ascents to the mounds were, like the ridges below, built up wholly of shells, great conch shells chiefly, blackened by exposure for ages; and ringing like their potsherds when disturbed even by the light feet of the raccoons and little brown rabbits, that now and then scuddled across them The Gothic, however, is the style i— ^>^ which, of all the orders known to history, most beautifully embod- ied the arch. It is not known whence this pointed architecture was derived, but it has been sup- posed that the Arabs, who learned the principle of the arch from the Assyrians, introduced it into Eu- rope, where it was combined with the Roman. Considering the fact of the almost simultaneous introduc- tion of the pointed arch to the various nations of Europe, \ Arched Covering to a Sewer. 128 immediately after the first crusade, and that it was commonly used in the East before that time, the most satisfactory theory seems to be that it was introduced by the crusaders in the Holy Land, and it was derived by them from the Saracens. Temple at Ephesus. The term Gothic has been applied to it, but it is no more Gothic than Celtic. The Goths ov^erran Europe and found the Celtic monuments* there, but the}' left no architecture of their own. It more properly is Christian, for it is the style in which the largest cathedrals have been erected, and is rarely used except for church architecture. Now, as to the column, and the mechanical principle con- tained in it, a few words should be said in explanation. The principle embodied in the column is nearly the same as that in the pier and lintel, and so it might be difficult to see that there is any mechanical principle at the basis of the Greek orders. I think, however, that the contrast between any building which has a bare wall surrounding it, and a building erected after the Greek style, with a series of columns adorning it, and support- ing the roof which projects beyond the walls, shows the point clearly. A wall may have buttresses or pilasters and so present 129 the form of the pier on its surface, but the beauty of the Greek style was owing to the fact that the columns were separate from the wall, and actually independent of the building. Now there is this difference in the conception of the columnar style by other nations and that which is peculiar to the Greeks, that the column was often made only a matter of ornament, as a relief to the wall, while the Greeks made it to perform a sep- arate office, or in other words, used it as a real support. The Greek orders, then, did really embody the mechanical princi- ple, as all of them required that the column should be separate from the wall. The progress of development of the Greek architecture also shows this, for at the first appearance the col- umn was placed distyle in atitis, that is, two columns between two walls, in front of the porch. At ever}- stage of advance, however, the column became more and more independent or separate from the building itself, but became more and more essential as support for the roof. In order to show this point, we give herewith a cut of the ancient temple at Ephesus, restored. This cannot be considered as a specimen of primi- tive architecture, for it belongs to a most advanced stage, but it illustrates the columnar style, as contrasted with the pyram- idal and the arched. It will be noticed that there is a striking resemblance between this temple and that at 01}'mpus.* This is the more remarkable because the temple Olympus is sup- posed to be one of the earliest known to historic times. It shows, however, 'how difficult it is to trace the architecture of Greece back to its primordial forms, and how important the study of ancient American architecture becomes on this account. There are, however, even in this grand historic temple, some analogies to the primitive structures which are found on this continent, and some points which show what features were peculiar to the early stages of architecture. The ascent to the temple by the long flight of steps is not unlike that which is seen in the ancient temples of Mexico and Central America. The prominence of the building among other buildings also shows that sacred structures were, at a very early date, made the object of artistic adornment, and so a clue to the uses of some of the unknown structures of this continent can be gathered. The history of the column in Egyptian architecture proves the same thing. Here the column is placed on the inside instead of the outside, but the perfection of the Egyptian style is shown by the separation of the columns by the walls, and by the fact that they were made to support the roof. The ♦For cut of the Temple of Olympua, see Aii. Antiquarian, Vol. m., No. 4. 130 •k;?' ' »> "0$ td^'-c m i^m ■'M m «5i«S ■^Wf. iliiii! iM ■m UH2V„ 'iM .•.«i.'t?S w&^ ^*/v/, or pool, 10 feet long from north to south, 7 feet 8 inches broad from east to west, and about 3 feet deep. At the time of our visit (May 3,) there was still some water in it, but so far as we observed no signs of fish or life. Neither 141 did we discover an)- traces of ancient cement, but being cut in the solid rock, this would hardly be required. The surface of the surrounding rock, shelves slightly toward the pool thus enabling it to fill in time of rain. 5. The Court Cut in the Rock. On reaching the actual sumniit of the mountain. I was delighted to see before me. what 1 had searched for in vain through the peninsula of Sinai and Moab, viz; a High Place, tiere, most conspicuous of all THE POOL, OR LAYER OF PURIFICATION, WITH THE COURT IN THE BACKGROUND. the interesting objects about me, a? I walked forth upon the almost level surface of the summit, was a rock-hewn court 47 feet long by 20 feet broad, lying as my compass indi rated, almost exactly north and south; cut down 18 inches deep on the east side near the south end, 16 inches at the northeast corner, 15 inches at the northwest, and 4 inches on the south half of the west side. The floor is quite smooth, dipping slightl)' towards the south, excepting that near the centre of it there is a raised platform 58 inches long from east to west and 31 inches broad from north to south — flat, and 4 inches higher than the surrounding surface of the Court. This raised platform, probably intended for priestly uses, as a table to 142 eat from (cf. i Sam. 9:13) or as a pedestal for an idol, or as an altar upon which the victims were slain, which is more probable, is of undetached rock, and lies considerably nearer the west side than the east, and somewhat nearer the north end than the south (see plan). The mathematical exactness with which this immense sunken area was cut into the living rock and the obvious artificial levellings on the higher surfaces about indicate that it constituted an important portion of a religious sanctuary. THE SQUARE ALTAR. 6. The Shallow Cutting North OF THE Court. Not far to the north of the rock-cut Court, as indicated in the plan, there is another parallelogram showing distinctly on three of the four sides, the attempt to carve away the rough rock and make it level, perhaps as standing room for certain of the wor- shippers. Its bottom is about 18 inches higher than the level of the floor of the Court. The cuttings are shallow, not av- eraging over 4 inches. 7. The Approach. The main approach is from the north- west. Here, as indicated in the accompanying plan, art; eight regularly cut steps in the rock leading down from the northwest corner of the Court. Traces of other stairs also 143 are to be seen at dffcrent points on the south and west faces of the mountain, some of which I photographed, but the rock of Petra being soft, they are worn away in many cases, per- haps bv atmospheric agencies, more probably by the feet of the worshippers. We approached from thesoutheast. Climb- ing up a certain ravine just south of the sacred mountain, we ascended, as my notes remind me, at first due east and later north, passing by numerous temples and tombs, here and Till-: ROUND ALTAR. there a Nabatha^an inscription (of such our guide assured us squeezes had been taken by Prof. Briinnow), several terraces carpeted with grass, and about half way up an aqueduct leading down to a cistern. At different points the ascent was arduous. We descended by quite a different ravine, on the north side, leading directly doyvn from the "Pillars" to a point not far east of the theatre. 8. The Squark Ai.tak. Most remarkabU- of all the diff- erent portions of this sanctuary, is a rectangular altar, situa- ted on the west side of the Court, facing the east with a passageway 3 feet deep and averaging 32 inches in width running round > on the north, west, and south sides. It is about 15 feet disiant from the Court, the space. being levell- 144 ed to the bottom of the altar and accommodated to the con- veniences of the [)riests. The exact measurements of the altar are 9 feet h)n fact that there were channels for blood cut in the rock is however significant. The fact that the altar was erected upon a high place, \\h;re it could be seen by the multitude would indicate that it was an unusual sacrifice, and may have been really a sacrifice of a human victim, similar to that practiced by the king of Moab. Levitical law forbade human sacrifice, but it was a common practice among all pagan tribes. Even Abraham was 148 tested, and bore the test as couraoeously as a pagan would. One can realize how the column of black smoke, arising from above the mountain would impress the people, but the knowl- edge that upon the altar a human sacrifice was being offered, ^I" ui ^^^^ ^^^ smoke and the fire which gleamed out beneath the black clouds, doubly impressi\e. 5- The fact that it was upon a mountain surrounded by others, which were noted for certain historic events, and STATUES IN THE INTERIOR OF TEMPLE. had been made sacred by the memory of notabilities, who had died and had been buried upon their summits, must have made the scene all the more imposing. We know of no locality, which was more celebrated in antiquity than this, for here Aaron, the High Priest of the Jews, was buried, and here also other events had occurred. 6. The scene and the structures all remind us of prac- tices (vhich were common in prehistoric times. There is no doubt that human sacritices were offered to the sun in many localities, and the open air temples were designed for this purpose. It certainly does not seem reasonable that such structures as Stone-henge and Avebury were, that they were erected merel}?^ for the burial of those slain in battle. But on the contrar}' sacritices to the sun, at stated Ex. 20:25- Deut. 27:5; 1st K. 6:7. ?d Kings, 3:27; 2ci Kings, 16:3; 2d K. ?i:6. 141t intervals, would require just such elements as were embodied in them. In this High Place we have the obelisk, the circle, and the altar, but in addition the square court, the stairway, the laver, and the channel for blood. These were all devoted to the sacrifices which took place on this High Place, but they also exhibit the beginnings of temple architecture. We have in a previous article described the rock-cut structures which are found in the wilderness of Sinai, in the region of Mt' Hor and in close proximity to the ancient city of Petra, a city which shows that the highest style of Roman architecture had been introduced into the midst of the desert and had covered the barren rock with the adornments of art. We now continue the subject, with a view of showing the age and period to which these rock-cut structures belong. The point which we make, is that stone monuments and megalithic structures belong to the prehistoric period and constitute the beginnings of that period, but there were other structures which belong to the proto-historic period, and still others to the historic period. It may be said that the archaeologists have all of them argued for the exist- ence of a prehistoric age, and have recognized the difference between the epochs or divisions of the age, these epochs being founded upon the study of the rude stone monuments, when classified according to their characteristics and their dates The order adopted is as follows : First, caves; second, kitchen-middens; third, mounds, tumuli and barrows; fourth, lake-dwelling, cromlechs, alignments, stone circles and cran- nogs, and fifth, towers. These followed one another in quick succession, and marked the stages through which society passed in prehistoric times. They, however, give very few hints as to the beginnings of historic times and furnish no evi- dence as to the dates in which hi-tory began. In reference to the proto-historic period very little effort has been heretofore made to identify any class of monuments as peculiar to it, and in fact there has been a hesitation on the part of archaeologists to recognize it as n distinct period. It is, however, worthy of notice that many ancient structures have been disclosed at Cyprus and Crete, and many other localities on either side of the Mediterranean Sea, which are distinct from both prehistoric and historic structures, and constitute in themsehes a separate horizon, which perhaps might be ascribed to the Bronze Age. As to the date at which the historic period began, there is much uncertainty, but the probability is that there were differ- ent dates; for recent discoveries are proving that history in Egypt and Babylonia goes many hundreds, and even thousands, of years back of the date in which the record began, either in Greece or Syria or Asia Minor, or even Crete; though in these latter regions the proto-historic period began at an early date, and tarried for many centuries. 150 As to the monuments and tokens which characterized this proto-historic period, there is a difference of opinion, but archaeologists generally are agreed that the appearance of the column and the beginning of writing constitute the line where the historic period began and the proto-historic ended. There were, however, many rude structures which preceded the ap' pearance of the column, and yet do not belong to the pre- historic age. Among these we may mention the various altars,, tombs, some of the obelisks, gateways, triangular arches, and the caves which contain the tombs, and some of the mastabas and the labyrinths. These are widely distributed, but where- ever thej' appear they constitute the border line between the prehistoric and historic period. Bronze also serves to m^irk the border line between the prehistoric and proto historic period on the one side, and the- DOLMEN WITH RUDF. COLUMNS. proto-historic and the historic on the other, for it was the ap- pearance of bronze which introduced the proto-historic period, and it was with the use of iron that the historic period began. Thii is an important point, for the outlines of the double- bladed ax have been found on the structures which have recently been exhumed by Arthur Evans in the island of Crete» showing that the various altars and temples, palaces and halls, found there beneath the soil belonged to the Bronze Age. The same point is impressed upon us by the discoveries of *Nchliemann in Troy and Mycenae. Gold was more conspicu- ous than bronze in his discoveries, but there are many evi- dences, beside the testimony of Homer, to show that it was during the Bronze Age that the proud cities began to arise. To this age we may ascribe the remarkable gateway at Mycenae, and other structures, many of which are situated in Greece and M >> H C w CO O n s o o H COLUMNS IN THE TOMB AT BENI HASSEN. COLUMNS IN THE MEMNONIUM. 161 Epirus; but there are others in Asia Minor, in Phrygia, and as far east as Persia. It may be said that the earliest stages of architecture are found in these rude structures, and by this means we are able to distinguish them from the rude stone monuments which are situated in the same region, but seem to have belonged to a different people and a different age. Now, it will be profitable to take up these structures which are scattered throughout the length and breadth of this belt of latitude, and study their characteristics and see whether they do not constitute a period, as well as a stage of advancement^ which can be distinguished from those which followed afterward. I. We begin with the land of Egypt. Here the rock-cut structures are quite numerous and are somewhat familiar, be- cause included in them, are many objects concerning which much has been written. Everyone knows about the sphinx^ but this belongs to a class of rock-cut structures which have a great variety of forms, and which seemed to belong to the historic age, but after all they date their beginnings back to the proto-historic period and on this account are very interesting objects of study. There was a great variety to the structures which were erected during this period. Some of them were merely cut out of the rock, and had no semblance to the architectural structures which appeared afterwards; others are in the shape of altars, obelisks, pillars, gateways and tombs. A very in- teresting class of structures, which appeared in this period, were animal and human images, all of which were cut out of the rock, the best specimen of which may be found in the Sphinx. The Sphinx is supposed to represent the king who built the second pyramid. It was carved out of a rock which broke the view of the pyramids, and is near the platform on which they stand, with its head toward the Nile. It is elevated twelve feet above the present soil. Only the head and should- ers are now visible. Some years ago, the sand was cleared away and it was found that a sloping descent, cut in the rock for 135 feet, ended in a flight of 313 steps and a level platform from which another flight of thirty steps descended to the space between the Sphinx's fore paws. The height from the platform between the protruded paws and the top of the head is 62 feet; the paws extend 50 feet, and the body is 143 feet long; being sculptured from the rock, excepting a portion of the back and the fore paws, which have been cased with hewn stone. The countenance is now so much mutilated that the outline of the features can with difficulty be traced. The head has been covered with a cap, the lower part of which remains, and it had originally a beard, the fragments of which were found below. The space between the protruded paws appears to have served as a temple, in which, at least in later times, sacrifices were performed to the deity. Immediately under tUc 162 breast stood a granite tablet, and another of limestone on either side, resting against the paws. The first contains a representation of Thothmes IV. offering incense and making libation to the Sphinx, with a long inscription in hieroglyphics, reciting the titles of the king. On the paws are many inscrip- tions of the Roman times, expressive of acts ot adoration to the Sphinx or Egpytian deities. No opening has been found anywhere in the figure, which is probably solid rock. Though its proportions are colossal, its outline is pure and graceful; the expression mild, gracious, and tranquil; the character is African, but the mouth, the lips of which are thick, has a soft- ness and delicacy of execution truly admirable. That it is an Egyptian head is plainly evident, notwithstanding its mutila- t i o n. The type, however, is rather fuller and broader than is usual in Egyptian statues. The statues of M em no n furnish two other speci- mens of rock- cut structures. These two colossal sit- ting figures, cut out of the solid rock, command the approach to a temple, now in ruins, in a quarter of western Thebes. The height of each of these statues is forty-seven feet, and they rest upon pedestals about twelve feet high. One of these has excited much wonder, because of its vocal powers, for it is said to have emitted its voice at the rising sun, but Sir Gardner Wilkinson found in the lap of the statue a stone, which on being struck emitted a metallic sound, though Mr. Lane maintains that he repeatedly heard a sound, like that of a harp string, from the stone above him, which was produced from the influence of the ^un's rays. There arc also rock-cut tombs and statues in Eg) pt. The 'most famous of these is the rock-hewn tenip'e at AbouSimbel; this temple belongs to history. On its facade are four colossal figures of Rameses II., represented as seated, sculptured out of solid rock, two on each side of the doorway. These are said to be the largest statues in Egypt. They measure from the sole of the feet to the top of the head, sixty-five feet. Over the entrcnce to the temple is carved in relief, the figure of the god Ra. The principal hall in the great temple is lined COLUMNAR DOLMEN IN EUROPE. 163 with statues of the gods, also carved out of the rock. These "Statues belong to a comparatively late period, but are the sur- vivals of such statues as were common in a very early period. Taken along with the Sphinx and the statues of Memnon, they ■show the progress of sculpture and of statuary, the seated figure being specially significant. The best illustration of the proto-historic structure is found in the tomb of Beni Hassan. This presents the earliest and most primitive form of the column, and taken in connection with the other temples of Egypt may be said to mark the very beginnings of architecture. VVe see in the tomb, the earliest form of the Doric column, for it has no pediment and no capi- tal, a mere square block takes the place of the capital. The column is a plain shaft. It has no taper, but is the same size from the bottom to the top. (See the plate ) The obelisks of Egypt are, perhaps, more strictly proto- historic structures, than are those which have been mentioned. Many of these belong to the historic period, yet they began to be built in the proto-historic period, and had many stages of ■development before the historic period began. The obelisks were evidently at the first sun-dials, or at least symbols of sun worship. The resemblance between these obelisks of Egypt and those found at Petra, is especially worthy of notice. The obelisks of Egypt are covered with inscriptions, which magnify the names of the various Egyptian kings; while those which stand on the rocks above the temple at Petra are plain shafts, and have no inscriptions upon them. 2. We turn from Egypt to Crete and Paphos and the islands in the Mediterranean Sea. These localities have recently excited much attention, owing to the discoveries which have been made in them. The most remarkable of these discoveries were made by Mr. Arthur Evans in the Island of Crete, the description of which is as follows: Mr. Arthur Evans discovered in Knossos a series of levels containing votive and sacrifical deposits connected with the cultus of the Cretan Zeus, whose special symbol was the double ax. In the central area of the palace of Knossos, he brought to light the foundations of two altars, which showed a special relation to the god of the ax. He says: " The cult objects of Mycenaean times con„, -<-pd of sacred stone pillars and trees; but certain symbolic objcc.b, like the double ax, stood as the impersonation of the divinity.'* Mr. Evans also thinks that the heraldically opposed animals on either side of a central post, such as are found in Mycenae, over the gate, may have come either from Eg\pt or Babylonia, but they are evidently survivals from the proto-historic period. The idea of the dolmen as a " Pillar of the House" was very prominent in this early religion. The Phrygian- image of the column found cut upon the tombs, belongs to a later date, but 154 represents the pillar cult. He holds that the primitive pillar^ with a cap stone at the top, tapered toward the bottom, and refers to a specimen of it found in a dolmen, the outside of which was made up of megaliths, which formed the roof and the sides, but were covered all over with cups or rounded cavities, the entire dolmen forming a shrine devoted to the pillar cult. Such pillars are also seen in the side cells of the megalithic buildings of the Island of Malta, an island which seems to have been filled with the traces of the two periods — the prehistoric and the proto-historic. These prehistoric works of Malta have been ascribed to the Phoenicians, but they are the outgrowth of a cult which was wide spread and had its chief development in megalithic structures. They show that there was a gradual transition from rude stone monuments to architectural structures during the proto-historic period. The dolmen-like character of many of the Mycenaean shrines, especially those seen in the rings, some of which present the primitive forms of the trilith taken along with the gateway and its pillar, make this place an excellent locality to study the transitiun from the megalithic monuments to such architectural structures as the column and the arch. There were, however, places on the Island of Crete and at Knossos, which were older than these. The discovery of the shrine, the double ax, and identification of the building with the tradi- tional labyrinth, connected with the discovery of chambers and magazines below the level of the buildings show that the earliest palace had existed in the middle of the third milleumn B. C; while in the second millenum plaster houses, with win- dows of four and six panes, and a street existed at Knossos. The windows were filled with oiled parchment, and not glass. The Mycenaean culture goes back to the earlier period, for though the remains of a neolithic settlement has been found in the vicinity, buildings constructed of enormous limestone blocks in the megalithic style were characteristic of the Mycenaean homesteads. This kind of a house anticipated the Greek house of classical times. In all, thirty towns were excavated. In twenty-two of them there were megalithic walls. The houses were one -tory. Huts were in the mega- lithic style, and yet there were stairways and streets.* Mr. J. M. M)er.> holds that in pre-Mycenaean times the ideal Hellenic house consisted mainly of two single rooms — one in the rear of the other. On the other hand, Ernest Gardner holds that the primitive Greek house was something like the Greek house with the court on the inside. 3. On either side of the Mediterranean Sea in Epirus and in the region where Iliuni or Troy once stood, we find the remains of structures which evidently belonged to the proto- historic age. Schliemann has explored the region and has •See "Journal of Hellenic Studies," Vol. XXII., 190a, page 505 ^155 brought to light specimens of proto-historic art which lay- hidden beneath the soil. Among these were copper nails, bronze battle axes, lances, gimlets, knives, and brooches, along with silver ear-rings and gold ornaments. The art itself shows an early stage of development, but the architecture is more snggestive even than the art. The excavations have revealed the architecture of different ages and nations, for no le<5S than twelve cities were built up on the same site. The fifth layer was supposed to be on the site of Troy, and the se\enth on the site of Greek and Roman Ilium, We need not dwell upon these points, for they have been discussed over and over again, but if we compare the walls and gateways, the stairways, and the various structures which aie found in ruins, we shall conclude that hero the proto-historic age was represented as well as the historic — the lower city be- ing prehistoric — and that a complete record is contained in the ruins. But it may be said of the Beehive tombs and chamber tombs and treasure houses of Mycenae, that they properly re- GATEWAYS AT SAMOS AND PHIGALIA IN GREECE. present the proto-historic period. The very walls, arches and gateways present a style of masonry which is peculiar to that period. The Lion Gateway has been often referred to as belong- ing to the earliest period of history. This gateway is nearly quadrangular, with a height of lO feet 4 inches, and a width of 9 feet 10 inches. The gate posts, the threshold, and the lintel are great blocks of breccia, showing clearly the marks of the saw by which they were cut out of the quarry. In the sockets we see the pivots by which the double gates turned. Above the gate, the wall is not built up solid, but the successive courses on either side overlap, until they meet in a sort of pointed arch, and thus leave a great triangular opening. This was the kind of arch which prevailed during the proto-historic period. There are many localities where it can be seen — at 'Samos, at Phigelia, at Delos, Mycenae, at Tiiyns, and at Ephesus. The main difference between the gate at Mycenae and those mentioned, is, that inside this triangular arch is the 156 EARLIEST ARCH. ■/heavy pier and linteil, with statues of the lions standing upon the lintel and a pillar with a rude capital between them. This is supposed to be one of the earliest columns in existence, and the whole structure represents an early period in architecture. The recent discoveries in Knossos and in Crete show that there was a pre-Mycenaean art and architecture in the islands, but ithey do not refute the position which we take, but confirm it. It is evident that in Greece the arch had its origin, for here >we find gateways which show the different stages of progress which were made before the secret of the arch was learned. In one of these gateways, we see the stones near the top projecting be- yond the line of the abutment, but held to their place by the weight of the stones above. In another, we find the edges of the stones beveled but coming to a point at the top, giving to the structure the appear- ance of an arch. There is, how- ever, no true arch to be found in any of these gateways, nor do we find the column with the capital anywhere in Greece at this time. The architecture of the time was exactly in the same condition as the architecture of Peru and Central America at the time of the Discovery by Columbus. 4. There is another widespread district on the east coast ■of the Mediterranean, which contains a large number of proto- historic structures; some of them in Palestine; others in Syria -and Phoenicia, and others in Asia Minor. The most interest- ing of them are east of the Jordan. Here we find rude stone monuments, so mingled with proto-historic structures that it is •difficult to distinguish between them. A specimen of these fhas been recently exhumed from the ancient city of Gezer. It may be said, that at this place, a succession of structures ^have been found, which shows that there was a gradual transi- Ttion from the building of rude stone monuments to the erecting •of various architectural works, though progress may have been owing to a change of the population, rather than the progress of the same people. This is made plausible from the fact, that on the east of the Jordan, and to the north of Palestine, there are many rude stone monuments which seem to have belonged to a different race, and possibly were erected by the old Hittites. though others have ascribed them to the Indo- European race. Prof. Samuel Ives Curtis has explored the monuments of Syria and Palestine, Mr. Stewart MacAlister has explored the ruins of Gezer. He says, " Beginning at the bottom, or two lowest strata, it was fqunci that the site was occupied by an 167 -aboriginal, non-Semitic race, of slight build and small stature. They lived in caves and rude huts. The cave-dwellers were succeeded by a Semitic people, who lived in houses of mud and «tone, surrounded with walls. In the fourth stratum, we find a •High place,' also megalithic structures, which consist of a group of monoliths, from 5 feet 5 inches to 10 feet high; a line and circular structure 13 feet 18 inches in diameter, consisting of a rude wall, now about 16 feet high, with no opening. The fifth and sixth strata are the most interesting, for they repre- sent the occupation of Gezer by the Israelites. Bronze is a common metal, though flint is still in use and remains of iron are found. The sixth strata is assigned to the period of the Jewish Monarchy, and the seventh to the SyroEgyptian period in the times of Alexander."* 5. East of the Jordan were many rock-cutstructures which ■evidently belonged to the proto historic period. These have been described by Dr. Merrill, formerly consul at Jerusalem. He quotes the language of Dr. J. G. Wctzstein: " Here is an underground city, a subterranean labyrinth. We found our- selves in a broad street, which had dwellings on both sides of it. Farther along, there were sevtral cross streets. Soon after we came to a market-place, where for a long distance on both sides there were numerous shops in the walls. After awhile we turned into a side street, whose roof supported by four pil- lars, attracted attention. The roof, or ceiling, was formed of a single slab of jasper. The rooms, for the most part, had no supports, the doors were often made of a single square stone. Here, I also noticed fallen columns. The present city, which, judging from its walls, must have been one of great extent, lies for the most part over the old subterranean city." In the same region, Dr. Merrill found some of the finest works of architecture, among which may be mentioned the Mashita Palace, built about A. D. 614; also a Roman road or pavement which shows the power and extent .of the Roman Empire. These comparatively modern structures were placed amid ruins of Gadara and the tombs which belonged to a pre- ceding age. These are dug in the limestone rock. All of them have doors of basalt On the doors are carved panels and Iknockers., and bands and bolt head-, showing they belonged to ithe historic period. Five great fortresses were in sight. In fact we may say thit this land, east of the Jordan, has a complete series of structures, which begin with the rude stone imonuments and end with the great palaces and temples which 'were built during the palmy days of the Roman Empire, the theatres and palaces and temples here present columns which have capitals of the Corinthian order. In the same region was situated the palace of Zenobia, the Queen, and the ruins of Tadmor in the wilderness, showing that the same fate had •See " Biblical World," Feb. 1904, page 146; Article by Irwin M. Pric«. 158 fallen upon them, that had fallen upon the people who erected them. Rev. J. L. Porter mentions a huge tower, rising high above the battlements and overlooking the plain of Hashan or Bozrah. He says: " From it 1 saw that Bozrah was in ancient times con- nected by a series of great high- ways with lead- ing citie>. These roads are worthy of notice, tor the Roman roads s h o wed much' more advance- ment in the art of road making than did the old Greek roads, which in fact re- sembled the old Cyclopean archi- tecture, and have been called the cyclopean roads, specimens of which have been described by Tsountas in his volume on the Mycenaean Age."* . The rock cut structures in the city of Bashan are in great contrast to the palaces and temples whicli are standing in 'ruins,, but which were built ROCK CUT HOUSE IN BASHAN. during the palmy days of the Rom^n Empire, for these palaces and temples present columns which have capitals of the Corinthian order and arches, showing that archi- tecture had reached its highest stage of ] development. The ruins of Tadmor in the wilderness, in which are found the palace of Zenobia, show that a worse fate had fallen upon them than had fallen upon the giant cities of Bashan, for these cities have been preserved exactly as they were when they were occupied. The very fact that thej' were cut out of the rock, have secu'cd their preservation; while the cities which were built •See "Mycenaean Age," page 56 fig. 8. ROCK-CUT DOORWAY IN BASHAN. !?fl!inE3illfSS^ c o o G H H W r 2 D THE HINDOO TRLAD BRAHMA VISHNU AlfD SIVA,. 15& up by the art of man, above the surface, and contain arches and columns and various ornaments, are in. complete ruin. The theatres are the best preserved, for the seats were cut out of the rock and insured their security. 6. We turn from this region to the region, farther north in Kadesh and Hamath, Carchemi^h and the we'stern bend of the Euphrates. Here was the origmal seat and capital of the Hittites, a people who belonged to the proto-historic period. The old sou hern Hittite capital was at Kadesh, though scores of Hittite remains have been found in the neighborhood of Aintab and Marash. Here, large numbers of Hittite monu- ments, bas reliefs and inscriptions have been found, the remains of prehistoric walls, with them some remarkable Assyrian in- r^^o^^^^^^^i >ti b <> ,0 f. H TOMB OF MIDAS. scriptions. These show the Hittite styleand form of struc- tures, ornamentation and bas reliefs, as well as the pavements and stone slabs. The Hittites were of Mongolian stock. They are a mysterious people. They first appeared about i6oo B.C., having invaded Syria and Palestine trom the far north. Their home was on the Orontcs River. The Assyrian art gives us many representations of sieges and battles with the Hittites. The Hittite chariots have been depicted upon the monuments, and their faces shown. 7. It is in Phrygia and Lydia that we find the most important evidence of this little known period. Much information can be gained from the study of the rock-cut structures in refer- ence to the period in which the people lived in tents, as well as the period which followed it, in which framed houses were erected. 160 Here the rock-cut totfibs are imitative of the house, and all the features of early ancient house architecture have been pre- served in this way, the rock being cut so as to imitate the beams, rafters, and doorways, with their jambs and panels. In other places, even pieces of furniture are imitated, and within the tombs are coucnes for the bodies, cut in solid rock. Even the roundels bring to mind the door knobs. The most interest- ing of these is the Oi.e at Midas. This has been described by Perrot and Chipiez. The peculiar pattern, seen upon its face, is said by them t ) have been an imitation of the drapery and the tent cloth which was made by the needle, and other por- tions represent the wooden framework. The tomb of Midas is, however, no more interesting than many others found in Phrygia, Lydia, and the regions adjoin- ing. Here there are tombs cut out of the rock, in front of which are columns built after a pattern with fine gable-ends, arches over the doorways built with sloping jambs, and a sun- symbol over the doorway, as at Ayazeen. Other tombs exhibit columns with capital, resembling the Corinthian, others with a porch in front of the chamber, and heavy Doric columns in front of the porch. The doors of the tomb are back of the porch. Most interesting are those hewn out of the solid rock, in front of which is a peculiar sculptured ornament which re- presents the tree or the column with a lion on either side, resembling the gate at Mycenae. The thought has been advanced that the lions which in Babylonia guarded the portals of the palace, and were a support to the throne, are here watch- ing over the last abode of the prince or grandee, exactly as they do over the tomb or treasure-house at Mycenae. n There were in India many rock-cut structures, some of them of magnificent proportions; a few columns on which were carved many ornaments, but with a heavy capital on the col- umn. A specimen of the rock-cut temples of India may be seen in the plate. This is comparatively modern, but taken in connection with the dolmens seen in the first cut, we can real- ize the changes which occurred in the architecture of that land, and yet the same characteristics were retained. In Central America we find many columns arranged in clusters along the fac^ades of these palaces. A few of them had capitals in the shape of square blocks, but the most of them were cut in the round, with bands in relief in the center, mak- ing a conventional ornament which was characteristic of the region. The conclusion which we draw, after comparing these structures of the New World with those of the Old World, is that architecture was here in about the same stage that it was in Greece, in Crete, in Cyprus, in Epirus, and at Athens during the pre-Mycenaean Age, which belonged to the proto-historic period. i6i CHAPTER X. PYRAMIDS AND PALACES IN AMERICA. We are now to take up the study of the pyramids as furnish- ing another illustration of the beginnings of architecture. It is to be noticed chat there were different kinds of pyramids. but they all appeared at a period just following the opening of history and may be regarded as among the earliest struct- ures erected during the historic period, the only exception being those found in America at the time of the discovery, and these may be said to really belong to the historic stage of progress, if not to the historic period. The point which we are to make in connection with the pyramids is that they mark the type of structure and the form of religion which pre\ail- ed at the earliest period, but which grew out of the structures and the religious beliefs which prevailed before they appear- ed. It will be profitable to us to draw the comparison be- tween them and see what points of resemblance and contrasts there are to be found, giving especial attention to the motives and beliefs which resulted in the erection of these massive structures. We have shown already that there were rock cut structures and obelisks and altars, as well as tombs, in the various countries of the East, but whether the pyramids preceded or followed these, remains at present uncertain. Still if we take the line of architectural de\elopment for our guide, we would natural- 'y conclude that the pyramids were all subsequent to the erec- tion of the rude stone monuments, and these were subsequent to the mounds and caves, the line of succession making it appropriate to consider the pyramids after the ruined cities and the rock cut structures. In treating of the subject we shall begin with the Pyramids of Egypt and show their purpose, manner of construction, aate of erection, and the motive that ruled, and afterward take the pyramids of Babylonia, and follow these with a description of the pyramids of America. I. Our first inquiry will be in reference to the pyramids of Egypt and the contrast between them and those of other lands. It is well known that the earliest pyramids in Egypt l62 were erected by a dynasty of kings who had come into pow- er and who brought the people into subjection, so that they were ready to obey their commands, and by this means, the resources of the kingdom were brought under their control. It is supposed also, that the religious sentiment had great sway. These pyramids stand upon the edge of a desert upon the western bank of the Nile, near the point where the river divides into its many mouths or outlets, showing that the d)'- nasty which was in power held control of the lower Nile and were in a comparati\'ely high stage of development. The three pyramids of Gizeh, called Cheops. Chephrens and Mycerinus, are supposed to be the earliest, though there are many others of these massiveburial vaults near the metrop- olis of the ancient city of Memphis and scattered along the ?-?o-?^^^--»S*a PYRAMID AT SAKKAKAH. plateau of the Libyan de>ert for a distance of many miles. They were erected as monuments of the kings and designed to preserve the bodies of the kings in power, and were really bu- rial \-aults, though they were monuments to the kings and de- signed to preserve the body of the kings. It was the belief in immortality that was the ruling motive, but an immortality which consisted in the preservation of the material form rath er than the survival of the spirit as separated from the body. The first requirement for the actual construction of the pyramid appears to have been the leveling of the rock sur- face. This was followed by the excavation of a subterane- The torm of this pyramid shows tnat it was modeled after a series of mastebahs, oue- above another. 1 63 an chamber and the erection of a small truncated pyramid or mastabah in the center of the rock. If the life of the king were prolonged, he added new outside layers of stone, follew- ing the outline of the first structure, thus enlarging the mas- tabah or tomb, the pyramid arising in terraces, and really be- coming a gigantic mastabah. The opening to the mastabah or tomb was below the pyramid and was reached by a long chan- nel or passageway which had been cut out of the rock. The size of the pyramids shows the great power which the king had, and at the same time illustrates the mechanical con- trivances which were in use at the period. Still the expense of constructing the first pyramid was so great that it nearly- exhausted the resources of the kingdom, and the successors to the first monarch were obliged to build on a smaller scale^ and finally to cease pyramid building altogether. The situation of the pyramids marked the dividing line be- tween life and death. On one side we see the Ri\'er Nile, with the luxuriant fields bordering the river, but on the other side all is desolation and dreary waste. The drifting sand shines under the glare of the noonday sun, dotted here and there with the crumbling remains of ancient tombs. The pyramids were illustrative of the belief of the people. According to this be- lief every individal consisted of three distinct parts; the body belonged to this world, the soul belonged to another world, and the double which belonged to the two worlds. A double wasgenerally in the form of a statue and was preserved in the tomb. The pyramid itself, however, was the means of pre- serving the body, and the utmost precaution was taken lest the tomb should be opened and the pyramid be despoiled of the body. There was orientation practiced in connection with this pyramid. It was, however, an orientation which appeared only at the earliest period, an east and west orientation, prov- ing that the worship was in all probability equinoctial, proving also that the ereclio:i of the pyramid had something to do with the rising of the Nile and the sowing time, and the har- vest time, the inundation of the Nile being the source of life and prosperity to the people. The erecting of the sphinx near the pyramids was also suggestive of the religious belief of the people. It is not known at present what king erected the sphinx, but as it is situ ited east of the middle pyramid and in the immediate foreground, and was sculptured from the solid rock so as to look toward the rising sun, it is supposed that it was wrought out at the time when the equinoctial worship was prevalent and before the solstitial worship came into vogue. To the ancient Egyptian the River Nile was a mystery. They believed that a god dwelt within its waters. It was per- fectly natural that the temples should be made sacred to the gods which ruled over the waters, and that the lotus plants which grew in the waters of the Nile should be imitated in the pillars that adorned the temples. The trinity of the Egyp- i64 tian ^ods consisted of Osiris, Isis, and Horus. The images of these gods were placed in the temples, but there were no images in the pyramids or even outside of them, except the image of the sphinx, which was represented as having the form of an animal with a human head, and was regarded as a symbol of Horus, the early morning sun. The association of the pyramid and temple is to be consider- ed in this connection. There are temples in Egypt wiiich were erected long after the days of the pyramids, and by dynasties which were entirely distinct from the pyramid builders, but the earliest temples are supposed to have been contemporane- ous with the pyramids. The temple of the Sphinx shown in the cut is proof of this. It was dis- covered in 1853. It lies below the level of the sand and was constructed by the pyramid builder. In a deep well in the corner of one of the rooms were found nine statues of Che- pheren or Cheops. The columns of this temple differ from those found in any of the later temples. They are mere mas- sive blocks of gran- ite without orna- mentation, and sup- port other blocks which form the roof of the temple; the principle of the pier and lintel being em- bodied in them but without cornice or capital, thus allying the columns with the architectural struc- ^ tures of the later THE PYRAMID, THE SPHINX AND ITS TEMPLE period* The magnitude of the pyramids of Egypt has impressed every one who has looked upon them; and yet the beauty and symmetr}^ of the temples adjoining ha\-e cdled forth the ad- miration of all; as the contrast between the two classes of works strengthens the impression. This is illustrated by the •The cut shows the veneering on the pyramid the rock below the bpbinx and the buried , mp\e of the Sphinx. i65 description which is given of the pyramid, written by Mr. Ebers, the famous Egyptologist, as compared with the des- cription of the temple at Karnak, written by Miss Amelia B. Edwards. Mr. Ebers says: "We stand before the largest of the works of man which as we know the ancients glorified as one of the wonders of the world. Only bv a compan.son with other structures present in our memory, can any idea of their immensity be missed. While St. Peters in Rome, is 430 ft. high, the great pyramids of Cheops is 482 ft. high, or 52 feet taller. If the pyramid of Cheops were hollow, the great cathedral eould be placed with- in it like a clock under a protecting glass. Neither St. Stephen's Cathedral of Vienna, nor that of Strasburg, reaches the height or the largest pyramid, and only the new tower of the Cathedral of Cologne exceeds it. In one respect no other building in the world can be compared with the pyramids, and that is, in regard to the mass and weight of the material used in the construction. If the tomb of Cheops were razed, a wall could be built all around the bor- ders of France. If one fires a good pistol from the top, the ball falls half wiy do vn its side. "Time marks all things, but the pyramids mark time," is the Arabian proverb." Tiie following is Miss Edwaid's description: The great hall of Karnak and its columns are enormous. Six men standing with extended arms, finger-tip to finger tip, could barely reach around any one of them. The largest col- umn casts a shadow 12 ft. in breadth. The capitol juts out so high aiiove one's head that it looks as though it might have been placed there to support the heavens It is carved in the semblance of a full blown lotus, and glows with undying colors, colors that are still fresh though laid on by hands that ha\e been dust 3,000 years or more. The beams are huge monoliths carved and painted, bridging the span from pillar to pillar, and darkening the floor beneath with bands of shadow. Looking up and down the central avenue, we see at one end a flame like obelisk, and at the other a background of glowing mountains; to right and left, and through long lines of columns, we catch glimpses of colossal bas-reliefs lining the roofless walls in every direction. Half in light and half in shadow these slender fantastic forms stand out sharp and clear and colorless. Each figure is some 18 or 20 ft. in height. It may be, that the traveler who finds himself for the first time in the midst of a grove of gigantic oaks, feels something of the .came overwhelming sense of awe and wonder, but the great trees have taken 3,000 years to grow and do not strike their roots through six thousand years of history. Mr. A. H. Keene also says of the construction of the pyra- mids- " It was formerly an Ee^yptian tomb 4 ft. square at the base and taper- ing up to a point. The Greek term 'pyramid' signifies 'pointed hke a i66 flame of fire.' The pyramids of JEgypt are in the first place the tomb of kings. The rise of this type has been ascribed to the-6th or 7th Dynasty, 3400 or 3200 B. C. The Royal pyramids are numerous, but none have been the subject of architectural study e.xcept the largest. That of Medum, 400 B.C.. seems to have been built over a mastebah, but it was sheathed with masonry, and brought to a point. The great pyramids of Gizeh have been supposed to have giined their great size from continued enlarging and re- casing through a long reign. Tne pyramids are mainly cairns. Thty are solid masses of stone or brick, but each has a chamber with several passa- ges leading to them which are carefully concealed, while false passages ex- ist which are intended to deceive plunderers."* The sides of the three great pyramids of Egypt face the four cardinal points of the compass. Cheops measures 750 ft. on each of the four sides. It is 450 ft. in height, and covers an area of nearly 13 acres. Its estimated weight is about 7,- 000.000 tons. There were changes in the construction of the pyramids. The first or oldest is the so called step pyramid of Sakkarah The steps are six in number and vary in height from 38 to 29 feet, their width being about 6 feet. The dimensions are 352X 396 feet, and 197 feet high. Some authorities think this pyra- mid was erected in the first dynasty. The arrangement of chambers in the pyrimid is quite special. The claim to the highest antiquity is disputed by some in favor of the "False P)ramid of Medum." This is a step pyramid 115 feet high, and shows three stages, 70, 2o and 25 feet high. This presents the form of the Mastabah more fully than any other pyramid, and shows clearly how the pyramids of Egypt originated The blunted pyramid of Dashur forms one of the group of four, tv o of stone and two of brick. The dimensions of these are as follows: 700x700 — 326 feet high; 620x620—321 feet high; 350x350—90 feet high; 343x343 — 156 feet high. Ac- cording to Prof. F. Petrie there is a small temple on the east side of the pyramid of Medum. At sunset at the equinox the sepulchre chamber and the sun were in line from the adytum. Th^sphinx near the pyramid of Cheops was oriented true east and ma}' possibly be ascribed to the early pyramid build- ers. It could only have been sculptured by a race with an equinoctial cult. The east and west orientation is seen at the pyramids of Gizeh. f It appears that pyramid building ceased after the sixth dy- nasty but was revived in the twelfth dynasty. Just before the Hyk^os period King Amenhotep III. returned to the gigantic irrigation works of the pyramid building of the earlier dynas- ties. Two ornamental pyramids were built, surrounded by statues, and the king himself was buried in the pyramid near the labyrinth. •See Staff >rd's Compendium ot Oeogr.iphy aad Travel' "Central and South America," Uy A. H. Keene, Lonlon. Stanford & Co. 1901. tSce Dawn of Astro omy, P. 337, by Norman Lockyer. 167 II. "We turn now from the pyramids of Egypt to those of Babylonia, but shall notice the contrast between the two class- es. One of the points of difference is found in the manner of orienting the pyramids. Those of Babylonia are oriented to- wards the solstices, the corners towards the points of the com- pass. This has been taken by Mr. Norman Lockyer as evi- dence that the pyramids of Babylonia were older than those of Egypt, as solstitial worship is supposed to be older than the equinoctial.* He says: "The east and west orientation is chiefly re- markable at the pyramids of Gizeh and the associate temples, but it is not confined to them. The argument in favor of these structures being the work of intruders, is that a perfectly new astronomical idea comes in, as quite out of place in Egypt, with the solstitial rising river, as the autumnal equinox was at Eridu, with the river rising at the spring equinox. "We are justified from what is now knovvn of the Nile dom- inating and defining the commencement of the Egyptian year at the solstices, in concluding that other ancient peoples placed in like conditions would act in the same way; and if these conditions were such that spring would mean sowing time and autumn harvest time, their year would begin at an equinox." There are other evidences ^o prove that the pyramids of Babylonia were the oldest in the world, while those of Eg\-pt are orientated toward the equinoxes, their sides toward the points of the compass. The pyramids of Babylonia have a tradition connected with them which goes back to the earliest time. This tradition has been preserved in the sacred Scriptures. Various inter- pretations have been given to it and to the whole story of the delugfe with which it seems to have been connected. Accord- ing to the celebrated author Ihering, the whole story of the Garden of Eden, the sin of the first pair, the banishment, the contest between Cain and Abel, was a pictorial representation of the progress of society from a primitive condition, up through the various stages. The change from?, natural state, where the people fed upon fruits, was followed by the shep- herd life, and that by the agricultural or the raising of fruit and grain, a contest occurring between the shepherds and ag- riculturists all represented by the story of Cain and Abel. The building of the first city was by the agriculturists, but the building of the first Pyramid was to escape the floods to which the \-alley of the Tigris and Euphrates was subject. The confirmation of the story is founded on the fact that the ' first pyramid was actually erected to escape the floods which were so common in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates. Whatever we may say about the correctness of this interpretation, we must conclude that the tradition at least * ■• •Dawn of Astronomy, p. 366' i68 favors the extreme antiquity of the pyramids of this locality. The recent discovery by the party sent out by the University of Pennsylvania to explore the ruined cities in the valley of the Tigris, also confirms the theory. The opinion expressed by the chief of the party, Professor Hilprecht, is th^t the pyra- mids here were built perhaps as early as 6000 3. C. which would make them two or three thousand years older than those of Egypt. It is true that certain graves have been dis- covered in Egypt which carry back th(,' date of the first or oldest race to a marvellous antiquity, but the pyramids here were certainly not built before the days of Menes, the first king, and no one claims for his reign a date earlier than 3500 B. C. It is true that burials which belong to the Stone age have been found in Egypt. They carry us back to a more primitive stage, but the date of the Babylonian pyramids is supposed to be much earlier. The discovery of libraries at Babylonia con- taining tablets with cuneiform writing upon them carries back the date of the Babylonian civilization much further than that of Egypt and confirms the tradition in reference to the valley of the Tigris having been the original home of the human race. The fact that the pyramids of Babylonia were built in imi- tation ot mountains favors their antiquity. This confirms the tradition in reference to the ark resting upon a mountain, which shows that the pyramid builders here originallv migrat- ed from the mountains. The difference in the construction is to be noticed. The pyramids of Babylonia were ziggurats or towers and not pyramids at all, nor were they used for burial places, but rather the foundation for temples or shrines. Many differences between the p)ramids of Egypt and those of Babylonia may be traced. 1. The pyramids of Egypt were tor the most part con- structed for tombs and had no buildings upon the summit or in the immediate vicinity. The temple of the Great Sphinx, discovered in 1853 below the level of the sand, was construct- ed by the pyramid builders. This temple was, however, a tomb as well as a temple. Numerous other tombs of great in- terast have been discovered near the temples; that of Edtou, the one at Sakkarah, the -tomb of Beni Hassen, are supposed to belong to the same period. 2. The pyramids of Egypt were constructed out of heavy blocks of stone which, with incredible toil, were transported from the mountains upon the other side of the river and lifted to their height by mere brute strength. The pyramids of Babylonia were generally constructed out of earth, and were built in terraces; the ends were veneered with stone, pavements of stone being placed on the platforms or terraces, and either palace, or shrine, or temple being placed upon the summit. 169 3- The pyramids of Egypt were perfect pyramids. They were built in imitation of mastabahs or primitive Egyptian houses, or tombs placed upon one another, thus making terra- ces, but before they were completed the terraces were filled with stone, and the whole was covered with a veneering of polished flint, which made them perfect cubes. The only room or house about them was on the inside or below the sur- face. The pyramids of Babylonia on the contrary were always built in terraces and were surmounted by a building of some kind, either a palace, a temple, or a religious house, and were never perfect pyramids. They resembled the pyramids of America much more than they did those of Egypt. 4. Another difference is shown in the fact that in Ba- ■ bylonia the pyramids were all orientated toward the solstices, the corners toward the points of the compass. "It is almost impossible to suppose that those who worshiped the sun at the solstice did not begin the year at the solstice, and that those who proposed to arrange themselves as equinoctials did not begin the year at an equinox. Both of these practices could hardly go on in the case of the same race in the same coun- try. We have then, a valuable hint of the equinoctial cult of Gizeh, which in all probability was interpolated after the non- equinoctial worship had been first founded at Abydos and possibly Thebes.'' 5. We notice another difference between the pyramids of Egypt and those of Babylonia * "One of the oldest pyramids in Egypt is the so-called step pyramid of Sakkarah. The steps are six in number and \-ary in height from 3S to 29 feet, their width being 6 feet. Some authorities think that this was erected in the first dynasty by the 4th king, but was built after the pattern of a series of mastabahs imposed on one another. There are 16 step pyramids in the valley of the Nile. The question has arisen as to the relative antiquity of the pyramids of Babylonia, some having claimed that those of Egypt were the older, but others have given the precedence to those of Babylonia. The best authority, however, is Norman Lockyer, and he maintains that the pyramids of Egypt were built by an intruding race from Babylonia called the "new race," the name being taken from the fact that it was newly round. The great pyramids of Egypt were built in the time of the 4th dynast)-, but two or three distinct periods had passed be- fore this dynasty began. The first period was marked by a people who were in the Stone age. The second period w.is marked by the peculiar bu- rials and the peculiar character of relics. The burial was in the circular grave with an immense number of pottery vessels arranged around the bodies, the deposit indicating that the people lived in circular huts. See Dawn o( Astronomy, page 333 170 The third period was marked by burial in a mastabah or rectangular tomb, built in imitation of the dwelling house of the people, the body being placed in a cellar or well below the house. The date of the earliest known pyramids in Egypt may be put down as about 3700 B. C. or 4200 B. C. There is conclu- sive evidence that the kings of Rabylon built ziggurats or tow- ers which were in reality step pyramids, as early as 4200 B. C. There was an equality of arts and the possession of similar fools in Chaldea and in Egj-pt at about the same time. If this is a correct explanation, then we may regard the pyramid at Babylon as a monument of one of the most im- portant events of history, as well as the reminder of a great convulsion of nature. This does not, to be sure, fully account for the peculiar manner in which the pyramid was built, nor does it account for the fact that the different terraces bore different col- ors and were sacred to the different planets, the shrine upon its summit being sacred to the sun. Least of all does it account for the presence of courts and columns and other peculiarities of construction such as have been disclosed by recent excavations. Yet notvvitstanding all the discrepancies, the traditions of the past and the explora- tions of the present have combined to make the spot a mem- orable one. All of these differences seem to confirm the opinion that upon this very spot near the mouth of the Tigris, the earliest civilfzation appeared, and from this as a center not only the historic but even many of the prehistoric races began their migrations, the tradition of the f^ood spread- ing from the center to nearly all parts of the world. It is also the opinion of the best Egyptologists that these and other pyramids in Babylonia preceded those of Egypt, the civilization of this region having reached a high point even when in Egypt, the recently found race called the "new race" were m the stage of barbarism wjiich was peculiar to the Stone age, the circular graves and the. pottery vessels recently discovered being supplanted by the mastabahs and pvramids which the imigrants from the East had introduc- ed. It is then to the pyramids of Babylonia that we look for the earliest tokens of civilization and for the earliest record of history. III. The pyramids of America will ne.xt engage our at- tention, It is well known that there are many pyramids on this continent. Some of them, constructed of earth, are found in the Mississippi x^alley, others, made out of stone and earth combined, in Mexico and Central America, still others, made out of stone altogether, in Peru; a great variety of shapes be- ing presented by the pyramids here. It has been the favoriite 171 theory with certain writers, especially the celebrated LePlon- geon, that the pyramids of Central America were exactly like the pyramids of Egypt, and were perhaps constructed by a colony from Egypt. In support of this opinion he refers to the various statues which in some respects resemble those found in the valley of the Nile, and claims that even the mod- el of the sphinx has been discovered here. In order to do av/ay with this visionary theory we shall show the probable origin of the pyramids of America. It was very natural for the people upon this continent to erect pyramids or pyramid mounds for the purpose of raising their houses, and especially the houses of the ruling classes, above the surface, for by this means they could be free from the overflow of the streams, from the attack of wild animals, and from the malaria and heat, which continued upon the sur- face, and made the nights so uncomfortable and the people so liable to sickness, especially in tropical regions. The largest pyramids were erected here in the same latitude with those of Egypt and Babylonia, and many of the circumstances were similar, but this does not prove any connection between the builders. It is certainly eas\- ^^ to trace a resemblance S between the platform | mounds and pyramid"^ earth works of the Mis- sissippi valley and tht various pyramids oi % Mexico and Central _^_ America for they seem ^( to ha\e been built after ^^-1 the same general model, the terraces pvramid mound in ohio rising above one another in succession, with stairways or graded ways leading up to their summits upon either side. Many of them were placed inside of enclosures and had their sides oriented exactly as were the temples and pyramids in the cen- tral provinces. These platforms were surmounted by different official buildings. A still more .'striking resemblance may be found in the so- called Chunkey Yards in the Gulf states, for these were gen- erally placed in the center of the village and were used as the place of amusenient for the people, the rotunda being at one end of the public square, and in all these respects resembled the tennis courts or gymnasiums which are so noticeable in Central America the very arrangement of the buildings and the vards suggesting a comn;on origin. These resemblances however, do not furnish any explana tionof the origin of the pyrnmids in America, nor do they prove that the pyramid builders here have any connection with the I/i pyramid builders of the old world, but oh the contrkry they must be taken as another illustration of the law of p;irallel de- velopment, the agricultural life and sedentary state of the mound builders leading them to adopt the s^amc form of reli- gion and the same general customs which were adopted by the pyramid builders in the countries of the East. It should be said that a theory has been advanced in ref- erence to the pyramids of America which would make them the work of a mysterious race who once inhabited the greater part of the North American continent, aud who constructed the platform mounds of the Mississippi valle)-, and erected the many storied pueblos of the interior, and the lofty terrace pyramids of Mexico, and filled one entire belt of latitude with the tokens of their presence. This theory, however, would be decidedly misleading, for whatever we may conclude as to the time when this continent was first reached, or as to the direction which the first inhabit- ants took in their migration, the evidence is that all the struct- PYKAMID AT ETOWAH. ures which have thus far been discovered are the works of dif- ferent tribes and races. We are to notice, however, that the early stages of architec- ture are to be recognized on this continent, and what is more, the very influences and causes which led the nations of the East to erect their great pyramids and to make them their chief and most lasting monuments, led the natives of this country to erect their structures which have the pyramidal form. What those influences were is not easily determined. Yet it is probable that the mod6 of life or occupation, the so- cial conditions, the religious belief and the mythological con- ceptions had as much to do with the forms of their structures as their mechanical skill had, and to these we must look for our explanation of the pyramids. It is well known that the pyramids of the East were b jilt by an agricultural people who never settled in permanent villages or cities and were generally sun worshipers, and that temples to the sun were frequently associated with the pyramids. The same may also be said of the pyramids of this conti- nent, for there are no pyramids except in those regions where agriculture abounds, and where sun worship prevailed, but pyramids are the most numerous where sun w^orship and sky 173 vvorship prevailed with the great- est force. Many of the pyramids were to be sure erected under the shadow of great mountains, and there may have been an attempt to imitate the mountains in the sizp and shape of the pyramids, yet we do not learn that there are any shrines devoted to the moun- tain divinities, as personifications of the sun and moon and the heavenly bodies were very nume- rous, and nearly all the shrines and temples, as well as the pyra- mids, were devoted to their wor- ship. In fact we may conclude that the pyramids of America had their origin in the same causes that led to the erection of the pyra- mids of Egypt and Babylonia, and that the same religious systems were embodied in them that were eiiibodied in the great structures of the East, also those which re- late to religions such as sacred places, priesthoods, native pan- theons worship, private religion .ind religious literature are especi- ally pertinent. The pyramids ot America in- terest us fully as much as do those of Egypt or Babylonia, though less is known concerning them, their builders, or even their his- tor)-. It is not claimed that they are as ancient as those of the old world, nor is it maintained that as much labor and oxpense was laid on them, and yet their form and clraracter and the manner of their erection are worthy of es- pecial study. Some of these pyramids were built in terraces designed for the support of palaces resembling the one shown in the cut which re- presents the governor's house at Uxmal. it will be noticed in the first place that there were quite three 174 distinct regions on the continent in which pyramids were common, and three distinct races who were pyramid builders, the Aztecs having built tlie majority of those found in Mexico, the Mayas those scattered through Central America, and the far famed Incas having built those found in Peru. It is to be noticed further that the style of building the pyramids varied according to the locality in which they were found, as those in Mexico are frequently placed upon natural elevations and owe their height to this circumstance, while those of Central America were generally built upon the same level, but reached to different heights according to the pur- pose for which they were designed, those which were to serve for the support of ihe palaces were built upon terraces spread over a large plat of ground, those designed for temples were compact and small, but reached a height which overtopped all other structures, while those designed for religious houses or for other purposes, varied in size and height. There were many terraced pyramids scattered through the country on which large buildings were erected resembling those which were common in New Mexico. These, because of their size and shape, were formerly supposed to be commu- nistic houses like the Pueblos of the north, and the theory was advanced that the people lived in the same manner. This, however, has proved to be a mistake, for all the pyramids of Mexico and Central America, as well as those of Peru, were built and occupied by the ruling class. Their very height and size impressed the common people with a feeling of awe for those who were in power and the many ceremonies which were conducted on 'the summit of the pyramids served to strengthen the feeling. It was a strange use to make of ar- chitecture and of art, and yet there was not a stairway which led up to the summit of a pyramid, nor a figure or ornament on the facade of any palace, or an image on any temple that rose above a pyramid, which did not contribute to the power of the priests and kings and increase the superstition of the people. The element of terror was hidden in ever)' ornament which was wrought by the hand of man, and served as a constant guard at the entrance of every temple and palace, the very height of the pyramids on which they were placed making the feeling all the more intense. It was an unconscious influence, for if the'sense of the sublime was awakened by the height of the pyramids, the same sense was kept alive by the strange and grotesque figures which appeared on the faca-des of the palaces and the temples, the very stairways which serxed as the means of approach being so wrought as to be the most awe inspiring of all. In this respect we may say that the pyramids of America were in great contrast to those of any other country, for while they were in themselves ver}' plain, and simply served the 175 purpose of platforms to the temples and palaces, yet the as- sociation of the*plalforms with the buildincrs upon their sum- mit was so close as to make them appear like one structures The same spirit that pervaded the decorations of the facade' also filled the mass of the pyramids which supported them. These points are to be borne in mind as we proceed, for it is not to the size or strength of the pyramids that we shall call especial attention, but rather to the peculiar mission which they performed in connection with the temples and palaces which were raised above them, the close combination of the build- ings with the masses which supported them making them more interesting as objects of study. As to the pyramids in Mexico, it is very plain that the ma- joritv of them were designed for the support of a temple or place of sacrifice, and as the height of the pyramid would make the ceremony all the more imposing and would give such effect to the sacrifice as to overawe the people and make them feel the power of the p-iests and kings. Thus people PYRAMID AT PAPANTLA. somecimes resorted to the mountains and placed their altars upon the heights which overlooked the valleys and there light- ed their sacrificial fires. We referred to one such temple in another place. The following is the account: They are all situated upon the summit of pyramids, but were probably so placed for the sake of escaping the malaria and heat, and taking advantage of the cool breezes which would sweep over them at their height. About a hundred and fifty miles north-westward from Vera Cruz, fifty miles in the same direction from Misantla, forty- five miles from the Coast, and four or five miles southwest from 176 the pueblo of Papantla, stands the pyramid shown in the cut, known to the world by the name of pueblo Papantla, but called by the Totonac natives of the region, Kl Fajin, " the thunderbolt. " The pyramid stands in a dense forest, apparently not on a naturally or artificially fortified plateau, like the remains far- ther south. Its base is square, measuring a little over ninety feet on each side, and the height is about fifty-four feet; the whole structure was built in seven stories, the upper story be- ing partially in ruins. Except the upper story, which seems to have contained interior compartments, the whole structure was, so far as is known, solid. The material of which it was built, is a sandstone, in regular cut blocks laid in mortar, al- though Humboldt, perhaps on the authority of Dupaix, says the material is deposited in immense blocks covered with hiero- glyphic sculpture, the whole covered on the exterior surface with a hard cement three inches thick, which also bears traces of having been painted. There was a temple at Xochicalco, the hill of flowers; this is a natural elevation, of conical form, with an oval base, over two miles in circumference, rising from the plain to a height of nearly four hundred feet. Traces of paved roads of large stones tightly wedged together, lead in straight lines towards the hills from different directions. We find the hill covered from top to bottom with masonry. Five terraces paved with stone and mortar, and supported by perpendicular walls of the some material, extend in oval form, entirely round the whole circumference of the hill, one above the other. Neither the width of the paved platforms, nor the height of the supporting walls, has been given by any explorer, but each terrace, with the corresponding intermediate slope, constitutes something over seventy feet of the height of the hill. The very fact of its being a pyramid in several stories, gives to Xochicalco, a general likeness to all the more important American ruins. The terraces on the hill slopes have their counterparts at Kabah Cho'ida, and elsewhere; still, as a whole, the pyramid of Xochicalco, stands above all as its archi- tecture and sculpture, presents a strong contrast with Copan Uxmal, Palenque, Mitla, Cholula, Teotihuacan, or the many pyramids of Vera Cruz. It must be remembered that all the graded temples in Anahuac or Mexico, have disappeared since the conquest, so that a comparison with such buildings as that of Xochicalco is impossible. In the centre of one of the facades, is an open space, some- thing over twenty feet wide, bounded by solid balistrades, and probably, occupied originally by a stair-way, although it is said that no traces of steps have been found among the debris. The pyramid, or at least its facing, is built of large blocks of granite or porphyry, a kind of stone not found within a dis- tance of many leagues. The blocks are of different sizes, the X n ~J^ 'A 1 TEMPLE AND PYRAMID AT I'ALKXOUE. 177 largest being about eleven feet long and three feet high, very few being less than five feet in length. They are laid without mortar, and so nicely is the work done that the joints are scar- cely perceptible. It was among the sheltered spots here that, the ancients built their tombs, several of which have been found, being in the form of stone-lined cists. The most prominent peak of this southern range, is at the western end, towering high above the rest, guarding, as it were, the Cuernavaca valley. This mountain is named Chalchihuitepetl, or, hill of the Chalchi- huite, the sacred green stone of ancient Mexico and Central America. There are said to be old quarries of it on the southern side of the mountain, which have not yet been investigated. It was placed on a very conspicuous point upon a mountain height which overlooked a wide valley, the temple itself be- ing built in the form of a pyramid, but with the altar in front instead of upon the top. The temple was divided into two parts. At its entrance were two square pillars, making threj doorways, but in the rear was a shrine with hieroglyphics on the walls. There was a fire bed in front of the temple which gives the idea that human sacrifice may have been offered up- on this spot, thus making the mountain itself serve the same purpose as an artificial pyramid.* The eastern end of the temple, shows a structure com- posed of four parts, the lowest, simply a wide foundation built of rough stones connected together. This serves as a foundation for the second part, the two forming a truncated pyramid. Against the eastern side of the pyramid are the remains of a steep flight of steps; resting upon the lower pyramid is a smaller flight one of the same form. Accordingly we reach the lower platform and, are in front of the old temple, which faced the west. The temple is slightly smaller than the pyramid. Nothing remains of the front wall with the exception of two square columns, showing a wide central door, with a narrow one on either side. This temple is divided into two rooms. At either end of the front room was a narrow bench or seat built against the wall; in its centre was an altar, where the sacred fire was lighted. The importance of this altar, is found in the fact that it was upon the summit of a mountain overlooking a wide valley and was probably used as a place of sacrifice. It is well known that, human sacrifice was practic- ed by the Aztecs, and that the Teocalli reeked with human gore. The most important feature of the ruin is, the hierog- lyphic inscription. This establishes the date of the temple at 1502, A. D. ; seventeen years before the entry of Cortez inlo Mexico. It is one of the few ruined temples which have been discovered, and its discovery shows that the same form of temple architecture prevailed among the Aztecs that had pre- *Human Sacrifices seem to have been practiced by the Aztecs and perhaps by theToltecs but not by the Mayas. 178 vailed among the Toltecs, but the temple among the Aztecs was devoticl to human sacrifice. The p\ramids of Central America are similar to those of Mexico in many respects, and yet diffrr enough to warrant a separate account of them. The cities here, are all very much alike. There was, in each a palace, which was generall)- arranged in a quadrangle, and furnished with courts and plazas, having wide terraces or plat- forms, in front of them, while the temples, were single build- ings, placed on the summit of a lofty pyramid and, were ap- proached by stairways, some of which were in the shape of ser- pents, whose heads projected beyond the stairway. There was a slight difference between the tehiples of the Mayas and Nah- uas, but the difference consisted more in the orna.-nentation than in the construction. Bancroft says: " Having fixed upon a site for a proposed edifice the Maya builder invariably constructed an artificial PYRAMID AT IZANFAL. elevation on which it might rest. If it was a palace or a Nun- nery so called, or some other public building, the elevation would consist of a series of wide terraces and platforms, which were surmounted by the buildings which were generally a single story in height, but so covered with heavy cornices and enta- blatures as to make them appear to be at least two stories in height. The tower in the centre, often arose to a height of three and four stories, thus giving them an imposing appear- ance. The palaces were generally long buildings, and had many doorways, some of which opened outward toward the terraces; others inward, toward the court." "All of the pyramids are truncated; none forming a point at the top. A few of them have been found to have contained tombs, which were probably the tombs of kings or priests. 179 Some of the temples have tombs in the lower stories, with stairs leading down to the chambers. The edifices supported by the mounds, were built upon the summit platform, and, gen- erally, cover the platform with the exception of a narrow esp- lanade around them. The palaces are built in receding ranges, one above another, on the slope, and are quite imposing in their appearance. One building usually occupies the summit, but in several cases, four of them enclose an interior court TEMPLE OF THE MAGICIANS. yard. The buildings are low and narrow. Thirty-one feet is the greatest height; thirty-nine feet the greatest width; three- hundred thirty-two feet the greatest length. The roofs are flat, and like ths floors, covered with cement." The walls are in proportion to the dimensions of the build- ing, very thick, usually from three to six feet, but sometimes nine feet. The interior has generally two, rarely four, parallel ranges of rooms, while in a few of the smaller buildings an unin- terrupted conidor extended the whole length. Neither rooms nor corridors e\-er exceed twenty 'feet in width or i8o length, while the ordinary width is eight to ten feet, and the height fifteen to eighteen feet; sixty feet is the greatest length noted. The walls of each room rise, perpendicurlarly, for one- half their height and, then approach each other by the stone blocks oxerlapping horizontally to within about one foot, the intervening space beingcovered with alayer of wide flat stones, and the projecting corners being beveled off to form a straight or rarely a curved Surface. This shows the general characteristics of the various pyra mids and palaces but we shall need to take specific cases to understand them fully. We have given a number of cuts which illustrate the different pyramids, especially those on which temples were erected. One of them represents the pyra- mid at Izamal which Charnay visited and has described. He says: "The great mound is called Kinich-Kakmo 'the sun's face with fiery rays," from an idol which stood in the tem- ple crowning its summit. The monument consists of two parts, ihe basement, nearly 650 feet long, surmounted by an immense platform, and the small pyramid to the north. Facing this to the south was another great mound. The third pyramid to the east supported a temple dedicated to Zamna, the founder of the great Maya Empire. The fourth pyramid to the west had on its summit the palace of the 'commander-in-chief of 8000 flints.' On its side near the basement, consisting of stone, laid without mortar, stood ithe gigantic face reproduced by Stephens. It is 7 feet 8 inches high. The features are rudely formed of small rough stones and afterward covered with stucco. On the east side is the collossal head 13 ft. high, the eyes, nose, and under lip formed of rough stones covered over with mortar, while double spirals, symbols of 'wind or speech may be seen, similar to those in Mexico at Palenque and Chic- hen Itza." The pyramids and palaces at Uxmal are also worthy of notice. They have been described by different writers, among them Mr. J. L. Stephens, Charnay, Mr. W. H. Holmes, Mr. Bancroft and others. Mr. Holmes has furnished a panorama which shows the number and shape of these pyramids, and a general description of them from which we make brief extracts: " The pyramid Temple of the Magicians (A); the Nunnery quadrangle (B); the Gymnasium (C); the House of the Turtles (D); the Governor's palace (K); the House of the Pigeons (F); and near it the massive pyramid (G); also the temple crowned pyramid (H); and a group consisting of two pyramids (I); and further away ruined masses." A pyramid at Uxmal is described by Charnay but he calls it the Dwarf's House. He says: "It is a charming tem- ple crowning a pyramid with a very steep slope 400 feet high. It consists of two parts, one reared on the upper summit, the other a kind of chapel, lower down, facing the town. It was richly ornamented and presumably dedicated to a great deity. Two stairways facing east and west led to these build- ings." i8t O this House of the Magicians (A) Mr. Hohncs savs: "This temple may well be regarded as the most notable amon- the group and is the first to catch the eye of the visitor Thelem- ple which crowns the summit is some 70 feet lono- by i^ feet wide and con tams three rooms the middle one b'eing longer than the others. The Nunnery qua- drangle(B) he says, is among the best known specimens of Maya architecture. Four great rectangular structures, low, heavy and formal in general conformation, stand upon a broad terrace in quadrangular ar- rangement. The ter- race measures up- wards of 300 feet square. The four great facades facing the court are among the most notable in Yu- catan and deserve es- pecial attention at the hands of students of American art. Of the Governor's Horse hesays:*(E) "This su- perb building crown- ing the summit is re- garded as the most important single I structure of its class in Yucatan and tor that matter in Ame- rica. It is extremely simple in plan and outlme being a tra- pezoidal mass some 320 feet long, 40 feet wide and 25 or 26 feet high. It is partially separated into three parts, a long middle section, and two shorter sections, with i recesses leading to •The plate represents the povernor's House and the House of thTTfagid^ iS: two great transverse archways. The front wall is pierced by nine principal doorways and by two archway openings and presents a facade of rare beauty and great originality." "One of the grandest structures in Uxmal is the great trun- cated pyramid (G) seen in the panorama rising at the south- west corner of the main terrace of the palace. It is sixty or seventy feet in height, and measures, according to Stephens, some 200 ft. by 300 ft. at the base. This author described a sum- mit platform 65 feet square and three feet high, and a narrow terrace extending all around the pyramid fifteen feet below the crest. The surfaces seem to have been richly decorated with characteristic sculptures.'" Of the House of the Pigeons(F)he says: "This unique structure is a remarkable quadrangle which could appropriately be called the Quadrangle of the Nine Gables. The court of this quad- rangle is I80 feet from east to vvest and 150 from north to south. Here was a great building of unusual construction and size with an arch opening through the middle into a court bearing upon its roof a colossal masonry cone, built at an enor- mous expenditure of time and labor." The pyramids at Palenque are aNo described by various authors, Del Rio, Dupaix, Waldeck, Stephens, Charnay, Ban- croft, and Maudsley. IMr. Holmes has drawn a panorama of this city with its ruined palaces and temples. He says of the pyramids: "There are upward of a dozen pyramids of greatly varying style and dimensions, eight only re- taining the remains of their superstructures. Some are built on level ground and are symmetrical, while others are set against the mountain sides. With respect to the stairways by which the pyramids were ascended Stephens and others seem to con- vey the idea that the temple pyramids had stairs on all sides covering the entire surface. As stair builders the Palenquians were superior in some respects to the Yucatecs. Some of the short flights which lead from the courts to the adjoining galle- ries are of speeial interest." CHAPTER XI. DEFENSIVE ARCHlTECiURE IN AMERICA. The defensive structures of America form one of the most interesting subjects of study. The correlation of these works to the natural surroundings, the different grades of architec- ture exhibited in them, the similarity of their forms and char- acteristics in the different sections, and their manifest adapta- tion to the use intended, make these especially instructive. We propose to describe these works in the present chapter, but especially in their relation to the ancient village life. It would be easier to divide the prehistoric works of the continent according to geographical lines, and treat all the structures of each section separately, without regard to their use or object, but as we have already spoken of this subject in the previous chapter, we shall in this, select the one class which was devoted to the purposes of defense and confine ourselves to it, making the defenses wherever they are found the special object of study. There are certain general points which are to be consid- ered before we proceed to the description of any specific work. I. The geographical distribution. It will be understood that defensive structures are scattered all over the American Conti- nent, and were as prominent here, as in other parts of the world. They were, in fact, more common during the prehis- toric times, than they are at present; for society was then divided into tribes, and tribes into clans. Each tribe occupied but a small extent of territorv, and as the tribes were often in conflict, it was necessary for them to provide defenses against one another. There were occasionally confederacies, which covered a larger amount of territory, but no confederacy was strong enough to keep its own members from occasional conflict. What is more, there was so little certainty that either confed- eracy or tribe would bring defense to the people, that each vil- lage was obliged to protect itself; and so the military was identical with the village architecture, or, at least, formed an essential part of it. The material varied according to the topography, for there was always a remarkable correlation between the works of the people and their natural surroundings, and the methods of their defense varied according to the character of the region. The illustrations of this are numerous. Forts, which were constructed out of massive earth walls, appear in 184 the midst of the rich valleys of the Interior, and are scattered over the prairie region. In the hill country, forts were some- times constructed of earth, sometimes of stone. In the Gulf States pyramids of earth were erected, which served both as refuges fjom high water and as defenses for the people. On the Great Plateau of the West, the fortresses and fortified pueblos were constructed almost altogether of stone, and were made to protect a large number of people. In the far South- west, stone pyramids were common, and on their summits temples and palaces were erected; while the common people lived on the level, but gathered about the pyramids and pro- tected them from invasion, by their numbers. 2. The architectural skill which is manifest in the defensive works, is, also, an important point, and the one to which we shall need to give the most attention. We might naturally suppose, that this would be more thoroughly displayed in the defenses, than in any other class of structures, as the military necessities would involve much outlay of labor and exercise much strategic power. Military architecture was always dis- tinguished in prehistoric, as well as in historic times, by this peculiarity: that it protects people in masses, and not as indi- viduals. If society is not collected, it compels a concentration at certain points, especially in the time of danger, and then makes personal defense a part of the protection given to the people. In the prehistoric age this concentration seemed jto always prevail, for the residences were mainly in the village enclosures, and, if the village defenses were not sufficient, the people would fly to some "strong-hold," and there mass their forces in protecting themselves from invasion. It has been questioned whether any primitive people was capable of establishing a separate fortress, and making this their refuge in times of danger. This has been disputed in the case of the Pueblos and Cliff-Dwellers, and every structure which has been regarded as a fortress, has been pronounced by certain writers to be merely temporary farming shelters; but the facts prove the contrary. There are separate forts which were places of refuge for the villagers of the vicinity, both among the Mound-Builders and the Cliff-Dwellers, and among the tribes of the Southwest. There were, to be sure, various devices by which the villages could be warned, and so provide for their safety, either by flight or by the rallying of their forces and setting up such defenses as they had, or by removal to some separate fortress. 3. Another point to which we shall call attention, will be that in the prehistoric times there was no military class, separate and distinct from the common people; while there were war- riors and war-chiefs and councils of war, and particular rites for the initiation of the young men as warriors, yet there was no such thing as a standing army, or even a garrison; and the equipments for war were always distributed among the people, instead of being gathered into an arsenal or kept in some place 185 devoted to the purpose. The organization of society was some- times on a war basis, but it was seldom permanently so, and when it was, it was a matter of volunteering and personal choice, rather than of political authority or public constramt. There were different grades of society in prehistoric times, and the military equipment always increased as the grade advanced; but it remained for the historic age to introduce the standing army and the permanent equipment for war, as well as the prevalence of landed estate. The establishment of military schools and the constant training of the youth for war, appeared at an early date in history. These came in with civili- zation, and were essential features, for the advantages of peace were felt to be so great that they must be defended by war. The progress of the people may be studied in connection with the military works, for a rude people would be likely to have a rude method of defense; while a more advanced people would have a more elaborate and complicated system. 4. In reference to the progress of military architecture in America, we shall find various illustrations, especially, as we pass over the different parts of the continent. This progress, also, does not seem to have been made so much in one locality, as by the people as a whole. The continent may be divided into districts, each one of which presents a style peculiar to itself; but one which represents the condition of the people who inhabited the district; the fishermen of the Northwest had one kind of defense; the hunters of the Northeast, especially those situated along the line of the Great Lakes, having another; the agricultural people formerly living along the Ohio River and the Gulf States, a third; the people who occupied the Great Plateau of the West, such as the Cliff-Dwellers and Pueblos, had a fourth style; those who were, at the time of the Discovery, inhabiting Mexico, a fifth style; those in Yucatan and Central America, a sixth, and those who dwelt among the mountains of Peru, a seventh; the intermediate stages were represented by the people who dwelt on the borders of each of these districts. 5. The most interesting fact, is that there are so many analogies between the methods of defense which were common in America in prehistoric times and those which were used in the historic lands. For the same belts of latitude are not only characterized by people in the same grade of culture, but by defensive structures which have the same architectural pecu- liarities. Those in the north of Europe, in the forests of Brit- tany, which have been described by Tacitus and Ccusar, and which Cassar took in his campaign, resembled those which were found in the forests of New York, and were occupied by the famous Iroquois Confederacy; and even the vitrified forts, described by Csesar, have their analogies in the ancient earth- works of Wisconsin. It is well known that there were towers scattered over the shores of the Mediterranean, and that others resembling them are §tiU found in Scotland and Great Britain, 186 These are supposed to be watch towers, and must be numbered among the defenses of ancient times. It is very remarkable, that there are towers resembling these, still standing, though in ruins, near the ancient cliff dwellings of the deep interior, and that there is about as much mystery concerning their use and the people who occupied them, as there is about those m ■ Sardinia and Phoenicia. The walled towns and ancient citadels, which were common in Palestine and are mentioned in the Scriptures, have also their correlations in America, especially among the tribes which formerly dwelt on the Gila m Arizona, and have left behind them the remarkable ruined houses and fortresses on nearly every high mesa. The ancient cities of the East were generally surrounded by walls, and contained many terraced pyramids, on the sum- mits of which were the palaces and temples, which became so celebrated in history. There were cities in Central America, in prehistoric times, which resembled these, and even the means which were adopted for their defense were remarkably similar to those which were common in Oriental countries. 6. It is to be noticed, that in all primitive society the village community is the unit, and is the chief object of defense; but, in most cases, the villages constitute the abodes of the clans, bnt as the clans are organized into tribes, the defense becomes common. For society was here divided into villages, and the defense was chiefly for the people, as they were gathered into villages, rather than for the people as scattered into separate houses, or even as clustered into cities and defended by forts which were erected at strategic points. Occasionally there were defenses which extended beyond the village and em- braced a number of villages, as the combination of clans into a tribe rendered it important for the clans to make a common cause, and cover their tribal habitat with defenses which wouhl protect all the people, and in this respect would resemble the defenses which are common in modern days. Still, there is a great difference between the defence of a nation and that of a tribe, for the first implies the existence of landed estate, and is designed to protect the property, as well as the people; but with the tribe, the object was to protect the tribal territojy, not because it was property, but because it was the abode of the people. The law of consangumity and the communistic system made the village a vary important factor of society, but the law of defense made it even more important still. The village was the unit, as it contained the gens, just as in modern society, the house is the unit, as it contains the family, the gens taking the place of the family in the prehistoric age. The village was defended rather than the land, the pro- vision for defence of the land being found in the defenses of the villages. The different members of the clan were, to be sure, affiliated, a^d were interested in having a common defense, 187 188 and so a system of tribal defense was established, somewhat different and separate from that of the village, but the main defense was in the village, the walls or enclosures very rarely embracing more than a clan or a phratry, other clans and phra- tries being gathered in other enclosures. In studying the prehistoric villages of America we have found that there were three or four methods of defense among them which are especially prominent, and to these methods we would call attention in this paper. These methods, it appears, were common in all parts of the country, and though the structures differ in many other respects, yet the same uses are manifest in them, and so the analogies between the differ- ent works appear. The first method of defense to which we shall call atten- tion is that which appears in the extensive system of signal and observatory stations which is everywhere manifest. We have already called attention to this system in connection with an article on the Emblematic Mounds, but we would here consider it more especially in its connection with village life, and therefore shall take the liberty to repeat a few of the cuts, using them to illustrate a new point. The fact is that a system of signals existed by which the villages could communicate, and among some of the races this system became very elaborate. The extent of this signal-system was, of course, dependent upon the extent of the tribe or the confederacy to which the villages belonged. In some tribes the signal system would extend over a whole state; in others it would be limited to the valley of a single river and in a few cases to a small river. Where confederacies existed, the signal system would extend over the whole grounds occupied by the confederacy. The study of this signal system, then, should first engage our attention ; after that, the provisions made for public de- fense in more limited localities, and the characteristics of each system. This, then, is the plan according to which we shall treat the subject. We shall first consider the signal system as it prevailed among all classes of prehistoric people. We shall next consider the combination of this system, with that of defensive enclosures, and shall also consider the location of the enclosures, especially as this location shows evidence of defense. The consideration of the village enclosure with the provisions made for defense in the very habitations, will form . the conclusion of the paper. I. Let us then consider the defense which the signal system gave to the villages. This system has been studied by others, and many things have been brought out which are new and of great importance. Here we acknowledge our indebtedness to 189 Plate II. 190 Col. Garrick Mallery, Dr. W. J. Hoffman, W. H. Holmes, and others. We present a few cuts taken from the last report of the Ethnological Bureau, which illustrate one method of sig- naling a village in the time of danger. We call attention to Plate I., as illustrating the habits of the present tribes of Indians. Their custom is to station a sentinel at some high point where he could overlook the coun- try, and where the approach of an enemy could easily be seen. By the sign-language the tidings can be given, and alarm be spread a great distance. The horsemen had a way of riding in a circle, so that they could be seen in all directions, and the sign was easily understood. Another method is to build fires upon prominent points, so that the smoke could be seen by day or the flame by night, and the warning be given in this way. Plate H. illustrates the use of fire in signals. This partic- ular cut shows the signal which was given to convey tidings of victory, but similar signals were given also as warnings. The natives have a method of signaling by fire, which is peculiar to themselves. The Dakotas, for instance, mix their combus- tibles so as to cause different shades of smoke; using dried grass for the lightest, and pine leaves for the darkest, and a mixture for intermediate shades. These with their manner of covering a fire with their blankets, so as to cause puffs of smoke, or of leaving the smoke to rise in unbroken columns, gave to them a variety of signals. Sometimes a bunch of grass was tied to an arrow and lighted, and shot into the air.* .The tribes of the south-west signal by this means. The Az- tecs signaled to each other by fire during the siege of the City o/ Mexico. There are many signals among the tribes which are used in case of victory, and others for hunting purposes, and still others for purposes of recognition, but those for defense are the most important. We give a cut illustrating the method by which the natives now make signs to one another for the purpose of recognition (see Plate HI.) The same custom of stationing sentinels on prominent points as look-out stations, has been long prevalent. Circles of stones are often found upon elevated points of land, where a good view of the sur- rounding country can be obtained. These circles are common upon the Upper Missouri, among the Dakotas in Arizona, among the Hualpai, among the Pah Utes of Nevada, in the Sho-Shonee county, in Wyoming, and in many other places of the far west. P'requently the ground around these watch sta- tions is literally covered with flint chippings, as it was the *See reports W. Hoffman, U. S. Geological Survey for 1877, page 474. 191 Plate III. 192 custom of the sentinels to spend their time in making bows and arrows while watching. This signal system still prevails. It is more prevalent in an open country like the plateau of the west, and yet it prob- ably prevailed in ancient times, in the region east of the moun- tains. Traces of it are seen among the Moundbuilders. 2, This leads us to a consideration of the signal system of the Moundbuilders. We have already referred to this, and have given cuts illustrating it.* The system prevailed among the Moundbuilders throughout the entire valley of the Missis- sippi, and observatory mounds are very common. They are to be distinguished, however, from another class, as this class was used for the purposes of defense, while another was used for the purpose of watching game. The distinguishing points of the observatories designed for village defense are as follows: (i) The signal station designed for defense is generally a mound located on a prominent point, in close proximity to an enclosure, and is so connected with other observatories that signals can be easily exchanged. On the other hand the outlook for a game-drive may have a more extensive pros- pect, but takes in the wide range of country without regard to the strategic points. To illustrate; the single isolated mound, called the Henderson mound, near Beloit, Wis., t com- mands an extensive view in every direction, and just such a view as would be fitted for the discovery of buffalo herds, as they might come over distant hills and approach the river, the prairies offering no barrier to the sight. On the other hand the village enclosure at Aztalan, forty miles to the northward, on a branch of the same river, the Crawfish, has observatories or lookouts on all the hills surrounding. Situated in the midst of the amphitheater of hills, this an- cient capital was well defended. A cordon of signal stations surrounded it, while the lofty truncated pyramid in the enclos- ure commanded a view of every point. The signal stations on the hills commanded other views at a great distance, so that no enemy could come within miles of the spot without being seen. A similar system of outlooks may be seen surround- ing the ancient capital at Newark, which was similarly situ- ated in the midst of a natural amphitheater, and the observa- tories were located on the hills surrounding. It has been stated also that observatory mounds are located on all the hills in this region, forming lines between this center and other prominent though distant points. A line has been partially traced from ♦See Amebican Antiquarian, Vol. III., No. 2. ISee Article on Moundbuilders, in American Antiquarian, Vol. II., No. 3, also Vol. ni., No. 2. 193 KElTHSSURi? Plate IV. 194 Mt. Vernon to Newark, the large mound in the cemetery at Mt. Vernon being one of the series. (2.) The combination of signal stations or observatories with beacons is evidence of a village defense. There are traces of fires on many of the lookout mounds. Many of the sup- posed beacons may indeed have been burial places, and it would appear as if the burial mounds were sometimes used as watch stations, or as beacons. We give here a map of the mounds at Muscatine to illustrate this point. It will be seen from this that the beacons were located all along the banks of the river, making a complete cordon of signal stations. Many of the mounds on this map have been opened and prove to be burial mounds, but their location on the bluffs surrounding the ancient lake illustrates not only the use of burial mounds for beacons or signals, but also shows how prominently situated the villages were. (3.) Another peculiarity of the observatories for defense is, that they are some times placed upon very high points, and command the view of other points at a great distance. This idea is given by Dr. Lapham, in connection with Lapham's Peak, a high knoll in Washington county, which commands a very extensive prospect for miles in every direction. Dr. J. W. Phene, in his visit to this country recognized the same in connection with the great serpent mound in Adams county, Ohio. He states that this work is located on an eminence, from which a view can be had of Lookout mountain, in Han- cock county, twenty miles away. The same has been observed by the author in connection with the works at Circleville. The great mound at Circleville was sixty feet high, and commanded a view of Lookout mountain, twelve miles to the south of it. On this mountain an observatory was located which com- manded a view of the works at Hopeton, situated just below, and the works at Chillicothe, twenty miles to the south of it. It is maintained by E. G. Squiers, that such a series of lofty observatories extend across the whole States of Ohio, of Indi- ana and Illinois, the Grave creek mound on the east, the great raound at Cahokia on the west, and the works in Ohio filling up the line. Other persons who have made a study of the works along the Ohio river, maintain that there is a series of signal stations running up the branches of the rivers, such as the Scioto, the Great and Little Miami, the Wabash, and other rivers, and that all the prominent works through Ohio and Indiana are connected by a line of observatories. This net-work of signal stations is interesting if studied in con- nection with the village enclosures ; as there are many scat- tered throughout this whole region. 195 Beacon fires were frequently lighted on the walls of the defensive enclosures, and man)' elevated points within village enclosures were also used for the purpose of signaling distant places, so that we cannot confine the signal system to mounds or to isolated stations, though as a general rule the signal sys- tem was outside and supplementary to the village enclosure. We would refer here to the fact that in the ancient fortifica- tion at Bourneville, O., there was a rock)- summit which over- looked a great valley below, on which traces of beacon fires have been discovered, and that upon the walls of the enclosure at Fort Ancient traces of fire have also been discovered. On the other hand there are many villages where the loca- tion of some lofty point near by would give great opportunity tor exchanging signals either by fire or smoke for great distances. Many such points are seen in dii'ferent parts of the country. Messrs Squiers and Davis mention the fact that between Chillicothe and Columbus, in Ohio, not far from twenty of these points can be selected, the stations so placed in reference to each other that it is believed that signals of fire might be transmitted in a few minutes. On a hill opposite Chillicothe, nearly 6oo feet in height, the loftiest in the entire region, one of these signal mounds is placed. A fire built upon this would be distinctly visible for fifteen oi" tweiit)' miles up, and an equal distance down the val- ley of the Scioto, including in its range the Circleville works, twenty miles distant, as also for a long way up the broad val- le)s of the two Paint Creeks, both of which abound in the remains of ancient villages. In the map of the Miami valley a similar position may be observed, and similar mounds occur along the Wabash, the Illinois, and the upper Mississippi, show- ing how extensive this signal system was, at the same time showing how intimately connected it was with village resi- dence. Rev. J. T. McLean has traced a line of signal mounds from Fort Ancient to the Miami River, and the writer has discovered that the great Miami Mound was so placed that signal fires could be seen for many miles up the Miami River in both directions, and connected the villages scattered along the dif- ferent rivers to the east with others far to the west. He has also traced signal stations scattered along the bluffs of the Mississippi River from the city of St. Paul' to St. Louis, and found that there were sometimes double and triple lines v\hich connected these with others in the interior and that e\ery high point was furnished with signal stations. Others have traced a similar system extending up the Missouri River, so that we may conclude that there was a network of ttiese stations on which beacon fires could be lighted all over the Mississippi valley; though it is probable that they were used by different tribes, and that each tribe and each confederacy resorted to the same means for defense. 1% Along with these signal stations there was another class of ancient defenses, — a class which consisted of a combination of signal stations and fortified enclosures. There were several classes of enclosures. We shall only mention three varieties: (i) The enclosures which were used b)' the warlike tribes, which were situated along the chain of the Great Lakes, through the state of Ohio into New York State. These have been described by various explorers and archaeologists Mr. E. G. Squiers has described those in the state of New York; Col. Charles Whittelsey has described those along the northern part of the state of Ohio, at Conneaut, Ashtabula, Painesville, and on the Sandusky River. The writer has visited the same localities and can testify to the correctness of the statements. Dr. Hill of Ashland, Ohio, has discovered forts within sight of CHAMPLAIN AND THE IROQUOIS. one another, through the whole length of Cuyahoga River, situated on tongues of land which would give distant views. (2) There was a class of hill forts scattered over the region on either side of the Ohio River, which were probably occupied by different tribes; some of them were undoubtedly places of last resort for the people who dwelt in the villages, and served as defense'^ for the numerous villages scattered along the valleys There were hill forts also as far south as Tennessee and Kentucky. Some of them were constructed out of stone, others had earth walls; but all were furnished with signal stations, as well as with walls and gateways. (3) There were fortified enclosures along the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers which were occupied by the Stone Grave people. They were furnished with extensive earth walls, and 197 possibly stockades were erected. The signal station was con- nected with them, but the burial places were within tht en- closures. Stone forts were found also in the Gulf States, some of them upon the mountains. The next method of defense was that secured by the erection of timber stockades, generally upon the hill tops. This was the method employed by the Iroquois, as well as by the various tribes situated along the Atlantic coast. Champlain found one of these stockade forts near the banks of the St. Lawrence, and had his first encounter with the Iroquois near it. Another stockade fort was situated on the southern part of Lake Champlain, near Ticonderoga. Here the Indians gath- ered with their boats constructed out of bark, but the French had boats of a superior style; the Indians were frightened at the discharge of fire arms and so were defeated. There were many such forts scattered through the state of New York. Champlain found the Iroquois entrenched in such a stockade fort at Onondaga. This fort was provided with platforms on the inside, on which the defenders stood. There was a stream of water on the outside which protected the fort from fire, and also repulsed the assailants. Champlain constructed an ele- vated platform, resembling those common in medieval times, and placed men armed with cross bows and fire arms on the platfofm, and was thus able to dislodge the Indians. Stock- ade forts like this were found by Cartier at Hochelaga, near Mantreal. It was near one of these stockade enclosures] at Mouvilla that De Soto experienced his first defeat. The villages in Florida were surrounded by stockades. The houses were constructed in about the same way; the timbers were set upright, making a circle, and were covered with a conical roof, which was thatched. There were, however, vil- lages along the Atlantic coast and in New England which had no stockades. The picture given on the following page represents the people which Verazzano, the early navigator, found dwelling on the coast of New England. There is no stockade in sight, but the people were dwelling under booths, surrounded by wild animals. There are other pictures of the same region, which represent the stockade as numerous. In the picture we see the various habits of these natives and their costumes; we also see the kind of boats with which they navigated the sea. Verazzano is supposed to have sailed along the south side of Long Island and may have reached Cape Cod, and possibly Newfoundland and the islands, for Basque vessels may be seen in the picture. The picture is interesting because it is the first view gained of this section. Another method of defense was by means of pyramids, which were terraced upon the sides and had a platform on the top. This was a plan adopted by the tribes in the Gulf States and all the civilized tribes of Mexico and Central America. 198 The pj'ramids at Cahokia marked the site opposite St. Louis of a large Indian \ illage, but there was no fort and no wall around the village. The only defense was found in the pyra- mids, on which the people might gather and repel the attack of any invading foe. There were similar pyramids scattered through the Gulf States, and it seems probable that they marked the sites of ancient villages. The pyramids combined a lookout station, with a safe dwelling place, and enabled the ruling classes to live separate from the common people. In this respect the villages resembled the villages of Central America. It is to be noticed that terraced pyramids were about the only defenses that the civilized tribes possessed. At least very yATJTE. INCOGNITA IILAMOSTAKA /J T B R^ILA eTe I, A B O K ADOK ^Bif VERAZZANO'S PICTURE OF THE NEW ENGLAND COAST. few vvalled towns have been discovered, but nearly all the cities were marked by groups of pyramids on which the palaces were erected. The best illustration of the advantages secured by a terraced pyramid is found among the Pueblos of the far We^t. In Mexico and Central America the pyramids were constructed out of stone. II. The most interesting method of defense was that which came from the combination of religious symbo.ls and mechanical contrivances. This has not been fully appreciated, but the more one studies the prehistoric woiks, the more examples he will find. A good illustration of this may be seen at Fort Ancient, Ohio. 199 Explanation of the Cut.— The unshaded lines represent the walls, the shaded lines the bluflf, the dark lines the ditches inside of the walls. The parallel Unes "supplemen- tary" properly should extend from the mounds at d to the comer of the page, represent- mg a north-east direction. The serpent symbol begins between "embankments and mounds," and extends around the lower enclosure. 200 (i.) In the first place, its situation is on the top of a pro- montory, defended by two ravines, which sweep around it to either side, forming precipitous banks, in some places 200 feet high. The ravines are occupied by small streams, with the Miami river close by, below the works on the west side. The wall of the fort is built on the very verge of the bluffs, over- looking the ravines meandering around the spot, and reentering to pass the heads of the gullies, and is itself very circuitous. The embankment in several places is carried down into ra- vines at an angle of 30 degrees, from fifty to one hundred feet in length, guarding the sides of the ravines and then crossing the streamlet at the bottom. The embankments may still be traced to within seven or eight feet of the stream. (2.) On the verge of the bluff, overlooking the river, there are three parallel terraces. It has been suggested that these were designed as stations, from which to annoy an enemy passing in boats along the river. (3.) At all the more accessible points, the defenses are of the greatesj: solidity and strength. The average height of the embankment is between nine and ten feet. In places, how- ever, it is no less than twenty feet. At the spot where the State road ascends the hill and where the decline is most gentle, the embankment is fourteen feet high and sixty feet base. Near this point, at a place where a stream makes an opening in the wall is a crescent embankment which is so built as to protect the opening, and make a barrier against approach. The wall about the large enclosure is perfctly level on the top, and is from six to eight feet in width, the angles and sides being peculiarly well formed and clean cut, giving to the whole structure the appearance of great finish and of much skill. There are over seventy gateways or openings in the embankment, which were originally about eight or ten feet in width. The object of so many gateways is unknown, but it is supposed that they were once occupied by block houses or bastions, com- posed of timber which has long since decayed. There is no continuous ditch, but the earth had been dug from convenient pits, which are still quite deep and filled with water. These are on the inside of the wall. The wall is composed of tough clay, without stones, except in a few places, but is remarkably well preserved. The slope of the wall is from 35 to 45 degrees, but in the lower part of the Peninsula the wall conforms closely to the shape of the land. (4.) There are two grand divisions to the fort, connected -with one another by a long and narrow passage, the wall be- tween the two enclosures being nearly parallel, but conform to the shape of the ground; across this narrow neck there is car- 201 ried a wall, as if to prevent the further progress of an enemy if either of the principal enclosures were carried. Two large mounds are also built at the narrowest points, and between them was a paved way, as if some special arrangement for a gateway or entrance had once existed. The combination of the signal system with the fortified enclosure are manifest on all four sides, i. c, on the northeast side, with the two mounds in the covered way ; on the northwest side, in the walls them- selves ; in the southwest side, by terraces and by the walls which here command an extensive view ; and in the southeast side, by a mound. This mound was erected at the extreme southeast point of the inclosure, as if for a lookout station on that side. (5.) Abundant provision was made for the supply of water. The ditches, on the inside of the walls, would always contain more or less surface water. The springs in the enclosure would furnish a continual supply. (6.) The author thinks that he has recognized in the shape of the wall, especially of the walls which surround the smaller inclosure, the form of a serpent. These walls are certainly serpentine in their course, and are so conformed to the roll of land, that their form gives rise to the conception. This may be merely accidental and not intended to embod}' the serpent symbol, but it is remarkable that the resemblance should have struck the eyes plainly at the very first visit to the place. 3. The Pueblos had the same system of defense which we have referred to, consisting of the combination of an enclos- ure with a lookout station. The combined system is here also connected with the village residences. This system helps us to understand many of the structures which were prominent among the cliff dwellers. There are watch-towers associated with the cliff" dwellings which illustrate the point. These tow- ers are generally situated on the summit of the cliff" above the dwellings. They are described as having extensive outlooks, and yet they are so connected with the dwellings that communi- cation could not be cut off". It has been supposed that these towers were estufas, and that they were used for religious pur- poses. If this were the case, then it is only another instance where the military and religious uses were combined in the same structure. The analogies between the Moundbuilders' works and the Cliff"-dwellers, in this respect, are quite striking. To see this, we have only to compare the mound and circular inclosure at the end of the curved way at Fort Ancient with the circular tower above the cliff" in the ruins in the Montezuma Canon (see the cut, fig. i, on next page). 202 There are other towers among the cHfif-dwelHng.s which served as^ look-out stations or observatories. Two such towns have been described by W. H. Holmes.* These were situated on the Mesa above the cliff, a portion of the towers being left open on the cliff side. The towns were placed immedi- ately above the caves which were excavated in the cliff- wall, and which were probably used as dwelling-places, while the towns served as fortresses, look-out stations, council cham- Total lenffth 94 feet °^'^'''^^''^^'^Vt^^jl(f({^^i\\\l''; 8x12 a y a n i RUINS IN MONTEZUMA '^^/J'l CANON, UTAH. Upon an isolated mesa 60 xl30 feet In diameter and 40 feet in tieight- ^332 ^t / I iV Vrrrr 25x25 Walls much broken down bers and places of worship. Being on the borders of the Mesa, the strong outside walls were found necessary to pro- tect against incursions from that direction. A square tower on the McElmo illustrates the same point. This building surmounts a rocky pedestal, and covers the whole surface of the rock. The windows open toward the north and east, directions from which the enemy, according to tradition, came. Another on Epsom creek, , similarly situated, illus- trates the same point. These towers are all close by the residences of the cliff-dwellers, and show that they not only depend upon the lofty isolation of their dwellings, which were perched i ,000 feet high on the side of the cliff, but also on the signal system, which would give them tidings of the approach of an enemy. III. We come now to consider the most common method of defense known to the prehistoric race of America. This consisted in the combination of natural defense, with the works of architecture, the architecture being only supplementary to the defense of nature. It is a singular fact that the prehistoric races never attained to the modern method of defending ordi- *See cut in American Antiquarian, Vol. IV., No. 3. 203 dcsce/uliruj ' to Creek. b\ ' ■TrorrLbtoe -IZOi't Plate VII. 204 nary places by military works, but they always chose strong points of nature and erected their military works upon them. There are, to be sure, many villages located in agricultural plains, which are protected by walls and enclosures; but the real defenses of the same people are generally found in the vicinity in the shape of strongholds, and the supposition is that the re- sort was to them in cases of extremity. The village inclos- ureshave already been referred to, and their location with a view to agricultural advantages there spoken of. We are now treating of village defenses as such, and not village inclosures. This method of taking advantage of the locality and adding to it an artificial defense was common with all the races. We see it among the Indians of the Atlantic coast, as their stock- ades were always on bluffs or islands, which were naturally impregnable. We see it also among the Moundbuilders, as their forts, so called, are always well located for defense. We see it also among the Pueblos and Cliff-dwellers, and even - among the civilized races of Mexico. We would call attention here to the ancient Mexicans, for the idea is common, that they had attained to almost a modern skill in defense, and to modern methods of warfare. The history of the City of Mex- ico is remarkable, and illustrates this point ; the history shows that the Aztecs were originally a weak tribe, but that they gained their superiority by the advantages of their location as a means of defense. They were crowded from the shores of the lake by neighboring tribes. They dug trenches and opened channels through the ground which they occupied, surround- ing it by water, turning the channel of the streams which came into the lake, for this purpose ; they made a long causeway, which connected the island with the mainland, leaving an occa- sional slough, covered by bridges, which were capable of quick removal; they divided their city into four quarters ; erected their immense teocalli in the center, and then from this posi- tion they made their raids on the neighboring tribes. Their superiority consisted not in their valor, nor in their military organization, nor in their generalship, but in the invulnerable position of their capital. Montezuma did not prove to be a hero nor a warrior when the Spaniards came, and there is no evidence that he ever had great military skill. Human sacri- fices and the custom of taking captives in war, made his peo- ple dread and fear him. There were many others more ad- vanced in skill and culture than the Mexicans. The defenses of the Mexicans outside of their city, were generally of the same character as those of other native races. They combined the advantage of natural location with artificial works. Even their far-famed towers, such as the pyramids of 205 Cholula, at Xochicalco, were of this character. They com- bined with the advantage of nature the additions of architec- ture and were used as places of defense. There were also the additional features to these pyramids, that they were regarded as places of worship, and were at the same time immense out- looks or observation. The hill of flowers, or Xochicalco, is mentioned as a wonder- ful structure, and as giving evidence of the marvelous advance of the Mexicans in architecture and military skill. The idea is not common that these pyramids were designed for defense, but the combination of an outlook with an elevated, isolated position, gives to us a thought. It is possible that these were really fortifications, but fortifications built on the same plan as the Pueblo of New Mexico, the elevation of the pyramid giv- ing the special advantage for defense. It is after all a some- what cowardly method of defense, but one that corresponds with the character of the people. Retreat to the summit of the platform, like retreat to the cliff-dwellers, might secure safety for the time, but did not rid the country of an enemy. In the last extremity, a modern, civilized people would re- sort to it, but with the strange mode of warfare, prevalent among the native races, it was a common method. The sud- den raids and fierce onsets, which resulted in immediate victory or entire defeat, would under this mode of defense, be almost a necessity. There was no organized or disciplined army, such as exists among other civilized races. There was really no military or strategic skill among them. Their fighting was like that of a mob. Vast numbers were massed together, but they crowded upon one another, and no military movements and no generalship existed among them. Rapid mobilization was the peculiarity of the army, great forces without trains, or with trains carrying the simplest equipments were common. War was conducted by sudden forays or raids, but no regular campaigns. Deeds of valor on the battle field were common, but there was no skill in retreat. Rapid pursuit followed defeat. The vanquished fled to the Pueblo, and the question was, which would reach the Pueblo first. In general, the conception of the tribes of Mexico in forti- fying any particular place, amounted to raising it above the surrounding level and crowning the area with a parapet of stone or wood. As a principal means of protection they re- sorted to elevation. In some cases several tiers of parapets covered one side of the mountain declivity. The dwellings of the people rested on the highest terrace, but the huts of the warriors were erected on the outermost defenses. 206 There was also, in connection with this method of defense, the reUgious idea. The teocalH were both temples and towers of defense. " The great majority of the Indian towns of Mex- ico were open places without circumvallations or enclosures, and without any other strong holds than their massive commu- nal dwelling and their pyramidal temples or teocalli.t" Added to these defensive means of their architecture, the recourses of a strong, natural position were sought for, and those tribes proved to be most powerful, which secured the strongest po- sition. We find the most singular illustration of this method of defense, however, among the Cliff-dwellers, and to these we would call especial attention. The Pueblos and the Cliff- dwellers owed their security to the same methods of defense. The positions which the villagers secured were of three kinds: (i) The cliffs. (2) High precipitous ridges. (3) The Mesas, which were somewhat isolated and surrounded by valleys. There were locations on the Mesas, where several villages could be grouped, and in these one Pueblo would aid another. The least defensible were those in the valleys or plains where there were no opportunities of outlook and no protection from nature. It is a tradition that the Cliff-dwellers dwelt originally in villages like other Pueblos, but the incursions of fierce tribes like the Arapahoes and the Comanches, drove them from their original seats. They fled to the fastnesses of the cliffs, and there made homes for themselves, until driven out by starva- tion,' as their enemy kept them in a continual siege, occupying the valleys below for entire seasons, and compelling the in- habitants of the cliff to flee over the mesas to distant places. This is rendered plausible by the resemblance of many of the cliff-dwellings to the Pueblos. The village system of architec- ture is manifest here, with the same features as among the ter- raced buildings elsewhere, with the exception of the terraces. The communistic system at least, prevailed here. a. The arrangement of the rooms shows this. These are crowded close together into the shelter of the caves, and are divided by walls, the compartments being wherever it is pos- sible, two storied, and the most of them without any open- ing for entrance except from the top, the wall being scaled by ladders, as in the case of the Pueblos (see Plate VII. , figs, i & 2.) b. The size and shape of the rooms (Fig i — k, I, in), is an- other indication. The rooms in the Pueblos, are generally Qx 20, and 9 feet high ; those of the Cliff-dwellers are much smaller, some of them not over 6 x 8 in size. They are gener- ally square, and erected with flat stone, the material being taken from the sides of the cliff. 207 Plate VIII. A front view of the Clifif-dwellers' village given in Plate VII. is shown in Plate VIII. It is described as situated 800 feet above the river, and so hidden away in the dark recesses, and so very like the surrounding cliffs in color that it was difficult to detect it. The lower house was accessible by the sloping cliff, but the upper store houses could onl}' be reached by a passage up the cliff near one end at the point marked a in the ground plan. It shows how thoroughly protected these dwellings were. 208 ^- - --- ' ... . -^rr— >,';> Mcjl. c. Inhere are many spaces among the cliff-dwellings which resemble the open court or Plaza, showing that the play- ground and the place of social resort was sought for by them, and, where it was possible, secured. The houses were erected on the edges of the rock, with the open space within, between the houses and sides of the chff. (Fig. I, e, Plate VII.) d. The presence of Estufas is an- other point. (Fig. I, round room). The circular enclosures, found amid the square rooms of these high- perched villages show how essential the estufa was to village residence. If estufas could not be built on the level with the dwellings, they were placed just above on the edge of the cliff above, but closely connected with the village. e. The store-houses (Fig. 2 — also Fig. 3, ^), found among the cliff-dwellings show that the communistic system prevailed here. Apartments in which have been found remains of corn and other products, are common. These apartments are, some of them, too small for residence, but would answer for store-houses, corresponding to the lower rooms in the Pueb- los. The defense of these villages was in the situation. Mr. W. H. Jackson, who first discovered them and furnished an account of them, describes them as perched so high and hid- den away so securely, as to be almost invisible to the naked eye, requiring strong telescopes to make out their outlines. Some of them were, at least, 1,000 feet above the valley, and were reached by the most difficult climbing of the precipitous sides of the cliff. Steps were hewn in the sides of the rock in places, but in other places, the dwellings could only be ap- proached by ladders. Isolated dwellings are found among the cliffs, but generally the village was as compact as that of the Pueblos. The defense was in the height of the cliff and in the strength of the wall erected on the edge. We give cuts to re- present the peculiarities of the cliff-dwellings. The size and shape of the apartments may be seen from the cuts. A method of walling up cave fronts is described by W. H. Holmes. Cuts of two of them are given here, as they illus- trate better than any description (fig. i and fig. 5). The three doorways open into as many small apartments, and these are connected by small passage ways (see fig. i). 209 Fig. 5 also illustrates the same point, and shows how the villages were provided with the estufa when there was not a possibility of having the two on the same level. The cut illustrates how the estufas were protected by the walls even in those places where no more than one apartment was erected in the same niche. Figure i, Plate VII., illustrates the combi- nation of the estufa with the dwelling apartments and store- houses and play grounds, or places of assembly. A wall and covered passageway, f f, of solid masonry leads from the outer chamber to the estufa. This passageway is but twenty-two inches high and thirty wide, by twenty feet long, and was cal- culated to prevent intrusion from the profane, as any one who entered it must crawl in the most abject manner possible to the rooms in the upper shelter. Fig. 2, shows how the storing of pro- visions was also connected with the apartments for dwelling. In this case the store-rooms are above in- stead of below the dwell- ing apartments. The clifif projects fifteen or twenty feet beyond the house, protecting both the upper and lower apartments. A stairway of small niches cut in the rock connected the two. The sloping bluff gave access to the water below. The position of the ruin is one of incom- parable security both from enemies and the elements. A similar village, but on a small scale, is seen in the Ruin upon the San Juan river. The ground plan in the figure shows the analogy between the Cliff-dwellers' village and the Pueblos (see cut). The site of this village can hardly have been chosen for its defensive advantages, as it is situated below the cliffs on the bank of the river. It would probably come under the head of an agricultural village rather than a Cliff-dwellers' defense, but is referred to, to show the analogy. The description of this ruin is given by W. H. Jackson.* "Upon the top of a bench about fifty feet above the river, but underneath the bluff, are the ruins of a quadrangular *SeP Report in United States Geological Survey of the Territories, F. V. Hayden in charge, for 1875. 210 Structure of peculiar design. It is arranged at right angles to the river. In the center of the building, looking out upon the river, is an open space 75 feet wide and 40 feet in depth. We judged it to have been an open court, because there was not the vestige of a wall in front. Back of this court is a series of seven apartments, arranged around a semi-circular space which is 45 feet across its greatest diameter, each one being i 5 feet in length and the same in width. On the sides of these were other apartments averaging 40 and 45 feet square. Extreme massiveness characterized the whole structure." ria.2. -|l RUINS UPON THE RIO SAN JUAN .\M' iiiiiirdmuii "III,,, ^^^nlltlUl|nll^U'lU/«//^ 5, 1.58 feet ^j,„„u.mi>»'"""'"""""''" i£ iV„,„„ii.iiii.i.m«in.ii«ii»"iinii'"i"i>^ J XllHlH*""'""""""""""""""''''^ The clifif-dwellings are not the only ones which have their position in strong points for defense. The Pueblos of New Mexico are also noted for this. Dr. Oscar Loew has described the ruins of two Pueblos, in the province of Jemez. They are situated upon a narrow ridge or mesa, which is nearly 750 feet high, and nearly perpendicular. Upon this ridge, near frightful precipices, are the ruins of eighty houses, partly in parallel rows, partly in squares, and partly perched between the over-hanging rocks, the rims and surfaces of which formed the walls of the rooms. Nearly every house had one story and two rooms. The village was only approachable by two narrow, steep trails. The view from the mesa is pictur- esque and imposing in the extreme. In the province of Aztlan, are ruins of former fortified towns. Some of the fortified structures had as many as 500 rooms in them. Prof. E. D. Cope has called attention to a village of thirty houses, extending along the narrow crest of a hog-back or ridge, in Northwestern New Mexico. One town he calls Cristine. He says that they were doubtless perched on these high eminences for defense, but they were conveniently 211 located near a perennial stream, which enabled them to carry on a system of agriculture. He says also that the number of buildings in a square mile of the region is equal to, if not greater, than the number now existing in the most densely populated rural districts of Pennsylvania or New Jersey. The- inhabitants of the rock houses necessarily abandoned the com- munal type of building, and considered only the capacity of their buildings for defense. Mr. Cope also mentions other buildings erected on the summits of knots of land, or circu- lar conic hills. These are only fifteen to twenty feet in diame- ter, were probably either a lookout station or towers con- nected with other buildings which are in ruins. Dr. Yarrow has described the ruins of an ancient village, in the valley of the Rio Chaca, and mentions six or eight other towns in the vicinity which, together, would contain a population of two or three thousand. The mesa is 250 feet above the level. The front of it is a sheer precipice, allowing no ingress to the town, capable of being defended against thousands, by a dozen reso- lute men, with no better weapons than rocks and stones. 3d. The seven cities of Cibola have been described by many. Col. Simpson, who was the first person who visited the region and discovered the remarkable ruins of the build- ings of the Pueblos, considers that these cities were identical with the Pueblo of the Zunis. This has been disputed, but the descriptions help us to understand the nature of the defenses. The number, seven, has been used to prove the identity, but there are several localities where seven villages may be found in close proximity. Dr. Loew says that the seven villages be- long to Tehue, the same number existed among the Moquis. There is no doubt that the Spaniards, in their march under Coronado, in 1541, found many fortified towns. In fact, the villages in all the canons of this section, the San Juan, Las Animas Jemez, Canon Chaco, Rio Mancos, and others, have fortified Pueblos, and give evidence of having been densely populated. The description given by the historians of that early date is valuable, because it will apply to nearly all the Pueblos of the region. It may be interesting to identify the exact spot, but the villages are very similar in their character- istics, the main difference being in their adaptation to the par- ticular spot in which they are located. The defense is mainly in the situation. IV. We take up briefly before we close this paper one other method of defending their villages used by the prehis- toric inhabitants, namely, that offered by the religious system prevalent. This part of our subject requires a separate chap- ter, but we shall refer to it here, especially as it is so closely 212 connected with the defensive structures, and cannot be under- stood except as it is associated both with village residences and village defense. The combination of the religious with the military system has not been sufficiently studied to be understood, but the specimens given are worthy of consideration. It seems to have prevailed among the Moundbuilders more than any where else. It also existed among the Pueblos or the Mexicans. The His- tory of the Conquest of Mexico reveal the fact that the relig- ious element was there mingled with the defense of the people. The resort of the people was to the temples, and the great Sun-God was appealed to for protection. It was with great amazement that the people saw the idols of their divinities thrust down from their height, and when the idea at last seized upon them, that both the power of their rulers and the protec- tion of their gods had been withdrawn, the result was that despair spread throughout the nation, and their destruction became complete. (i) This point is also worthy of special notice in connec- tion with observatories. There are a few very remarkable works throughout Ohio, which bear the character of effigy mounds. We refer to the Alligator mound at Newark, and the great Serpent in Adams county. It appears that the Alli- gator mound in Newark overlooked the extensive system of village enclosures, and that its position also made it a promi- nent object for the whole region about. There are signs also of an altar near the Alligator, where fire was evidently kept alive. The same thing has been noticed by the author in con- nection with effigy mounds. One such case may be seen on the east side of Lake Wingra, near Madison, Wis. All of these sacrificial places are on high points, and seem to partake of the nature of observatories as well as sacrificial altars. We give a cut of the Alligator Mound to illustrate this point. The mound is situated on a hill which overlooks the whole valley where the ancient village at Newark is situated. There are signal mounds on all the hills surrounding the val- ley, and the extensive works are situated in the valley below. The impression given by a visit to this lofty spot where the effigy is seen is, that here the great Divinity of the people resided, and here the beacon fires were lighted which would illuminate the whole horizon. On this spot the sacrifices would be offered. But the idea of defense may prove as prominent as that of worship, for the monster certainly over- looked the whole scene, and it is more than probable that it was regarded as the great Guardian Divinity of the place. 213 These sacrificial mounds may not have been observatories, in a strict sense of the word, for they seem to have had a re- Hgious object rather than a military. We refer to them here, however, for they give evidence that the religious element was mingled with the idea of defense. This we believe to have been one object, for the location of the sacrificial mounds, and especially the shape of the animal effigy, would indicate that a divinity was thus embodied, and that the idea was prevalent among the people that the guardian spirit was in the effigy and haunted the locality. The Animism which prevailed ///Mv7//i|\V. among the people would lead them to associate the two ideas, the Tutelar divinity being both an object of worship and a pro- tecting power, the sacrifice appeasing it, and the effigy symbo- lizing it. These effigies were isolated as if the divinity dwelt in lonely grandeur, and yet the outlook over all the region, and especially over the villages which were located beneath them, indicates that the feeling of protection was strong with the natives, their view of the height on which was erected the symbol of their divinity being a constant reminder of the protective presence.* (2) The point is also worthy of attention in connection with the enclosures. We have referred to the serpent symbol sup- posed by us to be embodied in the walls of Fort Ancient. This has been doubted. Other forts, however, have similar walls surrounding them. One such is depicted by Squier and Davis. + A fortification is situated on the Great Miami, four miles from Hamilton, in *8ee Antiquabian, Vol. IV., No. 4. +See plate II., figurea 1 and 2, on page 217 of American Antiqdarian, Vol. IV., No. 3. 214 -^ki^-ja: ;^>^- ^' ■J - "v'St t; ;| Butler county. The walls curve i inwardly, at the gateway on ! the land side, forming a semi- I circle or a horse-shoe, with a di- jameter of 150 feet. Between J^^' these walls, at the entrance of /--%;^1;the gate, is a circle of lOO feet :jn diameter, which nearly fills !^r:':-\^^ l.;^the space, leaving the passage ^lS-^3^-%-/l, for the entrance way only about ^-'^•?r;).4?.^ six feet wide. On the outside -r! cy^:?^^o{ the circle, and guarding the ->» ^!.-.c5 - . -*CC ?;-3^^?.-'^.2 entrance to the passages is a mound, forty feet in diameter and four feet high. The form of the serpent is seen in the shape of the wall at the gateway, and in the curve of the walls along the bluff, as they surround the enclosure. A similar re- semblance to the serpent form may be seen also in the stone wall which has been described by Squier and Davis, at Black- run, fifteen miles from Chillicothe, in Ross county, Ohio. The gateway or entrance to this stone fort also has the serpentine form, as the ends of the walls bend around and back upon themselves in a way which suggests that the serpent symbol was intended. The gateway was fifty feet wide, but the walls curved back for the space of sixty feet. There are four peculiar stone heaps on the outside, starting within ten feet of and ex- tending northward for the distance of lOO feet. These walls are twenty feet broad at the ends, but they diminish gradu- ally as they recede to ten feet, at their outward extremities. They are ten feet apart, but being tapering they converge, and, taken together with the enclosure, they give rise to the idea that they were intended to represent the rattles of a huge serpent. No other explanation can be given to the shape of the walls, nor to the outlooks though the resemblance to the serpent form has never impressed any one before. Dr. Phene says that there are four and not five of these un- ique and strange stone walls or stone heaps. His idea is that they represent double rattles, a point which he has recognized in other works. The great stone fort on Paint Creek is but two miles away and overlooks this work. Both may be regarded as belonging to the same system, and probably in some way connected with each other. The situation of this enclosure may be seen from the map of the works of Paint Creek. It will be noticed that this serpent inclosure has somewhat the same relation to the village inclosures of the valley that the Alligator ^lound had to the inclosures at Newark. 215 Allied to this custom of using serpent figures in connection with the forts and villages, is the custom which prevails on the Northwest coast. Here the tribes are all related to one an- other and are generally at peace; and yet each village is inde- pendent of every other village, and is controlled by some chief, who rules in the name of some great supernatural divinity; the emblem of this divinity is placed in front of the houses, or carried upon the poles, and is sometimes painted upon the canoes. This fact has been a source of protection to the vil- lages for generations. The figure of some animal or bird or fabulous creature is either placed upon the front of the houses or carved on the totem poles, and is seen and feared by all tho?e who approach the village. It serves the same purpose as did the Great Ser- ORNAMENT OVER A THLINKEET DOOR. pent Mound in Ohio, and as did the great serpent effigies, made of stone, which formed the balustrades of the stairway at Chichen-ltza, and as do the dragon figures which are still seen placed o\er the pagodas and temples of China. In fact, we may compare all these figures to the celebrated lions which were [)laced over the gateways at Mycenae, and the immense human-htaded bulls which were placed in the palaces at Ninevah and Bab\ Ion, and the sphinxes which guarded the ap- proach to the pyramids of Egypt. There arc also peculiar figures to be seen carved upon posts in front of the houses in Polynesia, and upon the rocks near the stone houses of the Easter Islands. These may be supposed to have served the same purpose as the carved and sculptured figures referred to abo\e. They were not fortifications, for they did not present any physical or material barrier, but there was back of these figures a religious influence which served as a protection to the houses. 216 On the Northwest coast there were many other devices which served to impress the people with a sense of fear. The figures which were carved upon the totem poles were oftm so fierce and ghoulish in their attitudes and combinations that they are calculated to frighten anyone who looked upon them; but the people here were accustomed to make masks which were even more frightful, and to wear these in their dances and religious ceremonies. These made known the divinity or manitou which was supposed to preside over the village, and served as a protection to all who dwelt in the village. There was a vast system of mythology which prevailed among the people which increased their superstition. Among the m}ths the most remarkable were those which told of the dangerous exploits of certain birds and animals which were supposed lo haunt the air and the sea and the land. The most inter- esting one of these is called Ho Xhok. This fabulous bird has COAT OF ARMS IN SU.MATRA. an immensely long beak and lives on the brains of men. An- other one is called " Hamatsa," a cannibal, who instills into others the desire of eating human flesh, and devours whom-so- ever he can lay his hands upon. AnotheJ monster is a canni- bal living on the mountains and is always in pursuit of man. Red smoke arises from his house. He has a female slave who procures food for him by catching men and gathering corpses; near the door of his house sits his slave, the Raven, who eats the eyes of the people whom his master has devoured. These fabulous creatures are often represented carved in wood and placed over the graves or in front of the houses, and form prominent objects in the villages. The double-headed serpent also is used as a totem, as well as a symbol of ofifice and of power. It owes its power to a superstition which existed among the people. These superstitions prevailed so extensively through the entire region, that they had the effect to keep the people who 217 are scattered about, at peace with one another. The dances are religious ceremonies, and in them the masks are worn which represent deer and eagles and birds and human faces and wild animals in the most grotesque and hideous manner. The masks are often-times double, so that faces which represent birds will open and other faces are to be seen that are hideous, the glaring eyes and open mouth and serried teeth of these hidden faces be- ing calculated to inspire all who p look at them with fear, Another device is sometimes seen painted on the front of houses, which reminds us of one which was used as a coat of arms on the coast of Sumatra on the opposite side of the Pacific ocean. It consists of a double headed serpent, whose body rests over thedoor. Above the serpent are two birds re- sembling eagles; below are two Above, over the door, are two human faces and a bird standing upon them. The coat of arms, as described by Mr. Henry O. Forbes, "consists of a shield with double supporters on ^^ ^?-.>^,. each side; a tiger, rampant, bearing on its back a snake, defiant, uphold- y^/T.M^§i'''^ ing a shield in whose center the most ' / ll^' l|'r-: prominent figure is a sunflower, with \ r^.^l'" two deer, one on each side; above l:tf|*' the ornament is a half moon; the ;:'ilJ^("r, figures below the shield are two tri- f'*Ht^^ angles, balanced on top of one an- CTVIflf^ other."* >V<# TOWERS IN PERU. other birds resembling ravens. This emblazoned board and its carved surroundings was hid away in ':x il?' i a little lone hamlet, among a half |f ' "" savage and pagen people. It was a ,-^*J surprise to the one who discovered ^^r'-%:^ it, but it is more surprising that it l^^^fe^.f i should so much resenible the figures '^'^^^^^:^0.'"^\ painted over the doorways of the native tribes on the Northwest coast. staircase in peru. Whether these resemblances were the result of contact, or parallel development, is a question, but this at least is true: •See " Naturalist's Warulerings," by Henry O. Forbes. New York: Harper Bros.; 1885. Pag* I So- ■218 the serpent and the tiger served as an emblem on the coast of Asia, as did the serpent, the raven, the eagle, and other creatures on the coast of America. Another example of this method of defense was found in the massive serpents which formed the balustrade to the stair- way at Chichen-Itza. Here the mcnstrous head projects out eight feet beyond the foot of the stairway, and its open jaws and glaring e)'es are so hideous as to impress anyone, and to the superstitious must have been exceedingly terrifying. These figures were perhaps designed more for ornaments than for defense, but they may have served the same purpose as did the Lion Gateway at Mycenae, and the ghoulish looking idol which was placed over the gateway to the temple at the City of Mexico, both of which had the effect to keep the sacred places from the intrusion ot profane feet. V. There remains to be considered another method of de- fence and one that was more effective than any other. It con- sisted in surrounding a city, and in some cases an entire country, with a strong, high wall, and then placing at the gateways and the passes high towers, which were guarded by troops, and pro- tected the city and the country from invasion. In may cases there were narrow stairways which led up to the citadels, and these were guarded by troops. The cuts represent these de- fenses, which were common in Peru. One of them represents the stairway at Pisac, the other the fortified pass at Pisac. Mr. E. G. Squier says of these: "Wherever it was possible for a bold climber to clamber up, there the Incas built up lofty walls of stone, so as to leave neither foothold nor stone for an assailant. In one case the ascent on the side of the town is by a stairway, partly cut in the rock and partly composed of large stones, which winds along the face of the rocky escarpment; hangs over dizzy precipices; twines around bastions of rock, on every one of which are towers for soldiers, with their magazines of stones ready to be hurled down on an advancing assailant. We find every projection or escarpment of rock crowned with towers, generally round, with openings for locking out through which weapons might be discharged and stones hurled. Every avenue of ascent is closed. Every commanding and strategic point IS fortified. Every peak is protected by a maize of works which almost baffle description,*' These towers, stairways and monutain passes resemble those which still exist in the midst of the gold regions of Mashona- land, which are very, mysterious, because no one knows at what time or by what nation they were erected. D oi u d oi u Q ««! Q O ai H < CO •< Q H o CHAPTER XII. HOUSES AND HOUSE-LIFE. HOUSES OF fishermen; of hunters; of agricultural races; OF the pueblos xVnd cliff-dwellers. The subject of house-life is an interesting one, whether it is found in the historic or prehistoric races ; for it brings before us a picture which is not only familiar but real. Nothing is more suggestive of the life ot the people, and nothing better reveals the actual state of the times than this. If we can get an inside view of the homes of any people we may conclude that we have a good knowledge of what kind of people they are. i. House- life not only brings before us the condition of society, but makes known whether society was divided into families, into clans, or into any other groups. It other words, it reveals what was the real unit of society. 2. House-life brings before us more or less of the history of the people. If we take the ground that there has been a progress from the lower stages to the higher with all people then we only need to look at the condition of the house and home to know through what stages the people have already passed. 3. House-life also throws light upon the question of race and religion. It is not always the case to be sure that we can determine to what race a people belongs by looking at its homes, and yet there is much in the style of the buildings and in the internal arrangements which suggests the nationality, or race, to which the occupants belong. If this is the case in civilized countries, it is much more so in the uncivilized coun- tries. 4. The religion of the people is also made known by the home. In idolatrous countries it is easy to tell the religion of the people by the idols which are common. In countries where idolatry does not prevail the signs are not so apparent, and yet there will be many things in the house which, to the observing eye, will reveal the faith of the household. This is as true ot the prehistoric asof the historicraces. 5. House-life furnishes an index by which we can learn the degree of civilization which prevails. By this we can learn the condition of art and of letters and ascertain the real status of the people, as regards civilization and social progress. The condition of woman and the character of the children will be seen in the home more than anywhere else, and even the disposition of the men and their modes of life will be unconsciously brought out by the house or some of its surroundings. 222 The question arises, however, if house-life is so suggestive, how can we ascertain what it was during prehistoric times ? Our answer to this question is that the chief means is by studying architecture, and especially that form of architecture which was embodied in houses. The American continent furnishes a most favorable field for this line of study. There are here so many different specimens of house architecture, and these specimens are so distributed in the different geographical districts and so correlated to the occupations, social conditions, modes of life and means of subsistence, and other peculiarities of the people, that we have only to look at these structures to ascertain much concerning the prehistoric times. The study of the monuments brings us to this conclusion. If one can ascertain the character of a people by looking into their homes, and may always find that the house presents a true picture of what the people are, then the importance of the knowledge of the house architecture of the prehistoric races will be understood. We therefore address ourselves to the subject. We are to study the houses and the house interiors of the American races, with a view of ascertaining from them what were the habits and ways of prehistoric peoples. Our effort will be. first, to ascertain whether the employments and modes of life are indicated or represented by this class of structures ; second, to learn whether the stages of progress are indicated by the house-life ; third, to examine into the social organization and to see whether the house is in any way an exponent of the clan system. In reference to the first point, that is the employment, it will probably be acknowledged that in a general way the house and house-life are so correlated to it that we may ascertain the one from the other. We may need, to be sure, to examine the sur- roundings, look, not only to the debris of the camps and at the weapons and implements which may be associated with the place, but also the locality and all the surroundings to ascertain the employment ; and yet we may regard the house as the best representative, a better exponent than all. In reference to the second point, the grade of society or stage of progress, it is not always true that the house is a clear index, and yet, if we take the house in its geographical location and with those things which may be regarded as its contents, and consider that all are correlated, we shall be able to ascertain the exact condition of the people. In reference to the third point the task will be more difificult. It is an unsolved problem whether the primitive races lived in the communistic style and whether the clan system was universal. The size of the house and the internal arrangements have generally been regarded as indices of these, and yet it re- quires a very close analysis and careful study to ascertain the real facts. We shall take the house as the basis of inform- 223 ation and seek to ascertain from this what was the real con- dition of the people. We have already shown that primitive r^- ciety was divided into different grades, the grades varying ac- cording to their employment. The fishermen represent the lowest grade, the hunters that which is next higher; agricultur- ists that which is still higher; villagers the next higher grade, and the dwellers in cities the highest of all. This may seem like an arbitrary division and yet it is carried out by the facts in the case. In America we find occupations so correlated, and the grades of society so marked by the houses that there is no difficulty in distinguishing them. They are, to be sure, divided by geographical lines and are so arranged in the different belts of latitude that we can almost tell before hand what to expect. The fishermen as a general thing are in the colder regions; the hunters in the regions farther south ; agriculturists still farther south ; and the civilized races in the torrid regions ; so that all that we have to do is to consider the geographical locality and wc may at once know^ what the grade of society was and the em- ployment, the means of subsistence and the general condition of the people, and the problem seems to be an easy one, yet in reference to the communistic system and some other points we find ourselves frequently baffled. We are to bear these points in mind especially, as we consider the houses which are found in the different parts of the continent. If we find what the typical structure was for each of the employments, and what kind of a house was associated with each grade, we are still to ask about the clan system, the communistic state, the social organization, the marriage rites, and those other questions which come up in connection with the home or house-life. I. We begin then with the houses of fishermen, especially those which are found in thefrozen regions of the north, i. We are to consider these as the typical structures, for a certain grade of so- ciety during the prehistoric age. We maintain that we have in the hut of the Eskimo a type not only of the rudest and most primitive, but the earliest form of house. We now find these huts on the border between the ice-fields and the water-plain marking a sort of bank between the habitable and the uninhab- itable; but in prehistoric times the line was much farther south and we may imagine that this kind of hut then was built on the edge ot that great glacial moraine whose folds stretch from the Atlantic to the Pacific in the latitude of 37° and from that to 45°. This is our first epoch of house-building. Another point is noticeable. The house of the northern fishermen is the structure which intervenes between the cave-dwelling and the later habitation. As in Europe the dolmen and cromlech and lake dwellings are supposed to mark the line between the cave and the architectural structures, so these fishermen's huts mark the line in America. We here call attention to the remarks 224 which Mr. William A. Dall has made about the houses and huts of Alaska. He has described the different stages of progress which may have taken place before the beginning of house- building. These stages he ascertained by the study of the relics and remains which he discovered at different depths in the shell- heaps. He thinks that the means of subsistence, the mode of life, the style of habitation were correlated. He divides the epoch ot human occupation into three or four different periods. First is what he calls the littoral period,* a period in which men built no huts and did not even occupy caves, but were mere squatters, so to speak. They were so rude that they merely covered themselves with a temporary structure of drift-wood and straw, something as the inhabitants of California shield them- selves by huts of brush-work. This hardly seems possible, ior in such a climate as Alaska no human being could have lived without protection. Mr. Dall found caves in this region, though he thinks the caves were only temporary habitations of hunters, and not of the fishermen. It is probable that we shall not find out what was the habitation of man during this period and yet it would seem as it caves were the habitations then as well as during the fishing period. Mr. Dall says that the stratum in the shell-heaps which marked the fishing period differed from the preceding by the appearance of a few rude net sinkers, chipped stone knives, bone darts, and hand lancss, and by quantities of fish-bones and says the fishing period was represented by the fish-bone layer, but that the littoral period was marked by the layer of echinus shell. He says "the total absence of awls, bod- kins, knives, needles, buttons.or of any bone utensil which might be used in msking clothes leads to the conclusion that the peo- ple did not wear clothing." He says "there were no lamps, no baking stones, no hearths," so he concludes that this ancient people were not in the habit of using fire. According to this the ancient man in America must have been a very strange kind of creature. It seems much more satisfactory to take the cave- dweller of Europe as the representative of the littoral period and the hut-builder as the representative of the fishing pe- riod. We strike upon these solid facts when we reach the fish- ing period. This period is marked by the use of fire, by the manufacturing of clothing, and by the erection of rude huts or houses. Here then we have the order of succession. In Europe we have gravel beds the first, cave-dwellings the sec- ond, lake-dwellings the third, stone monumuents the fourth, but in America the littoral period, the fishing period, the hunting pe- riod, the agricultural period. We put the beginning of house- *Mr. Morgan makes natural subsistence upon fruits and roots 'an evidence of the earliest stage, but assigns tlie inhiibitants to a tropical or subtropical climate. Fish subsistence was correlated to the middle stage of savagery. Outside of the great flsh areas cannibalism became the dire resort of mankind. The littoral period we con- sider arbitrary, yet suggestive. 225 building in the second or fishing period, and assign the cave- dwelling to the so-called littoral period. The Eskimo's hut is perhaps a good representative of the first constructed house. This type of house is found among fishermen in all parts of the continent, though it may not always be constructed of ice-blocks or attended with the same underground entrance, yet as a style it is common. It is very remarkable that the dolmens and cromlechs of Europe have retained some of the features of this earliest kind of house. They have the long entrance to the in- ner chamber and were generally covered with the hemispheri- cal mound resembling the Eskimo hut. It is supposed that the graves of Europe were frequently imi- tative of the houses, the urn huts being imitative of the lake dwellings, and the dolmens imitative of the fisherman's house. This same prevalence of early types of houses may be seen in America It is very remarkable at least that the huts or houses of the tribes which occupied the shores of the great lakes were generally hemispherical,* as were the houses of the Eskimo. They were to be sure covered with bark, which was laid upon a framework of poles, and not of ice-blocks ; but we connect the shape with the employment. It is also well known that in America the hunter tribes generally constructed houses made from a frame-work of poles, which were covered either with bark or matting or skins ; but it is remarkable that the hunter's tent or wigwam was almost always in the shape of a cone, the poles being tied together at the top very much as a number of muskets would be stacked, and the covering placed upon the poles. We here give the cut illustrative of these two styles of da-ellings. See Fig. i. The one is the hut of the Chippewa tribe, the other of the Algonquins. In the cut may be seen the earliest form of st;-uctures erected by the white man, the old- fashioned wind-mill ; and the difference between the native inhab- itants and that which was introduced from Europe, especially France, may be recognized. 2. It would .seem that we have the typical .structures of the first stage of society, and that the earliest people who undertook to build houses at all must have dwelt in huts like the.se. This thought is confirmed by the investigations into the kitchen mid- dens or shell-heaps. Mr. Paul Schumacher has described the kitchen middens on the coast of Oregon, and speaks of the sunken rings or depressions in the shell-heaps as if they were an indication of the kind of houses that were occupied by the fishermen. He imagines that they were conical or hcmispheri- *Mr. Morgan savs: "At the time of their discovery— 1C41— the Ojibwas were seated at the nipids on the outlet of Lake Superior. Their position possessed advantages fora fisli and game sul)sistenee, which, as they did not cultivate maize and plants, was tlioirniain reliance. The Ojibwas and Ottawas and Pottowottoniies are divi- sions of the original tribe. Their home was originally upon the shores of Lake Superior. .\11 of these tribes have the same kind of tent." 226 cal houses covered with earth. The age of these kitchen mid- dens is unknown, but it does not matter. In Denmark and Swe- den the kitchen middens are supposed to be of an ancient date, M le and order should be drawn, for orders were introduced by the Greek tribes, i. e., the Doric from the Dori- ans, the Ionic from the lonians, and the Corinthian from Cor- inth, but these orders were not known or practiced by the other nations of the east until a very late period, and were never practiced by the native races of America. There were in Amer- ica styles which were confined to tribes, just as there were in Greece, orders which belonged to and bore the name of the Greek tribes, the number of styles here in America being equal to the number of tribes or collection of tribes, even as the number of orders in Greece were equal to the number of na- tions or tribes in Greece. Nor do we claim for America that there was one general style or order, for this would imply that there was an American nation, whereas there was here only a number of tribes, though every tribe had its own method of con- structing the houses they lived in, its own method of arranging those houses in a village, and its own style of decorating the houses, the style being derived from the mythology which pre- vailed. We may say further that the tribes which were situa- ted in certain large geographical districts were so influenced by their surroundings that it was not so much an individual tribe as a collection of tribes which impressed themselves upon the architecture, and the style which prevails in any one district is not so much tribal as it is geographical, and characteristic of the locality rather than of the people. There was, to be sure a habit of borrowing from one another which prevailed among the tribes which dwelt near together, which strength- ened and intensified this tendency to merge the tribal into the geographical --tyle, thus makmg a sort of middle ground be- tween the tribal and national, but with enough diversity for us to recognize the elements which were blended together and de cide as to what was the specific type which each tribe had adopted for itself, making the classification what maybe called ethnic or tribal st\ les. We may well take the geographical districts and speak of the peculiarities which were character- istic of the collective tribes rather than the single tribe. The following is the list of tribes which we may say in a collected capacity have shown a style of house construc- tion and style of ornamentation which were characteristic and which in a general way may exhibit the ethnic traits. Consid- ered geographically, they may be said to begin at the far north and to make two distinct lines, one on the west and the other on the east The Alaskans occupying one district had one general style of architecture. The Thlinkeets, who dwelt on the northwest coasts where forests abounded and where the sea furnished a great variety of food, had another style and used wood as material, while the Pueblos, who dwelt in the interior H O H W O r w > z o a: o c w w cr. O Z z o ?d H :2 w (/) H n o > H 1^'' :'v:^^^; s^ss^^ %r•:'--J2?V>v•• .- - -. f «" . ,i» . . . ■■jS ft •: :iz-^ ^0, '^s^^ .^ fWWaSSEEffi H < O u H in O u H z o M en ID O K i-i^gmjA^ ^ii^'K^ tn M h5 O s H o H refa'S^ri b0f ,:M.#AtQ( (- P- 247 among the cliffs of Arizona and New Mexico, had an entirely different style, stone being the material used, the terraced house being the typical form. Tribes, who dwelt in Mexico and Cen- tral America, had a style which was somewhat similar and used the same material — stone — though their ornamentation was entirely different. Thus we find along the Pacific coast five general divisions or geographical districts over which definite and distinct styles of structures were distributed and can be easily recognized. A similar division can be recog- nized along the Atlantic coast. The Esquimaux first, at the extreme north ; the Canadian tribes second; the wild tribes which were scattered along the Great Lakes third! those on the Ohio River a fourth, and the tribes situated along the Gulf States a fifth, Ten distinct styles of constructing and ornamenting their houses may thus be seen in North America, all of which were different from those which existed among the Peruvians of South America and the tribes east and south of Peru. As to the manner in which these different styles arose there may be a difference of opinion, yet there is no doubt that much was owing to environment, for the method of construction would naturally depend on the material which was the most abundant. The ornamenting would depend largely upon the mythology which prevailed. The arrangement of the houses in the villages would also depend upon the circumstances, for those who were situated along the seacoast would naturally make their houses front the sea, but those who were situated in the deep interior, where enemies were numerous and means of subsistence scant, would naturally live together and make their houses their fortress as well as the home of the entire tribe. On the other hand, those tribes who dwelt in the rich valley of the Mississippi would naturally make earth walls for their de- fense and gather their villages within the walls, while those living on the flood plains of the south would build pyramid mounds and resort to these in time of great freshets, the necessi- ties of the case and influence of environment being sufficient to account for the different kinds of villages and for the differ- ent methods of defense. In this respect the architecture of America differs from that of any other country. Here the districts which are bounded by certain geographical and climatic lines, are as distinct from one another as if thej- were upon different continents. The style of building, as well as of ornament- ing, are also peculiar to each district and rarely go beyond certain territorial boundaries. A wide region intervenes between these districts where no particular style is recog- nized, but in other countries there is no such limitation. The thought which is forced upon us by the works which 248 appear on this cotinent, is that society here had not reached that stag^e where the sense of proportion and beauty had come into full exercise, and yet there was an inliuence which came from mytholog"y and a certain unconscious taste which was engendered by it, which gave a peculiar character to the works and structures which were erected by the people of the same general locality or geographical district. This character we may ascribe to the people as an inheritance, and say that it has come down from an ancestral religion which embodied itself in the ornamentation. The styles were in this sense all traditional. The compelling idea was de- rived from the religious beliefs and mythologies which pre- vailed, though the material used, the purpose of the build- ing, the proportions required, were dependent upon other causes than those which affected the ornamentation. In other words, the religion and mythology of the different tribes affected the ornamentation, but emplo^^ment, means of subsistence, climate and other physical causes, affected the construction. There was no one style of architecture in America, but as many styles as there were systems of my- thology, for the ornamentation was always borrowed from the mythology which prevailed in the region, Illustrations of this are numerous, for we find on the northwest coast or- naments in which the figures of the creatures of sea and forest and certain strange monsters are conspicuous. In tbe prairie region of the West we see the tents ornamented with birds, plants and animals peculiar to that region. In the Gulf States there were formerly carved figures with the human form in grotesque attitudes, serpents, idols which combined the heads of different animals, and a great variety of nondescript creatures, all carved out of wood, while in Mexico and Central America we see a great variety of fig"- ures carved upon the facades of the palaces, the serpent being the most consiDicuous but human figures and faces are very prominent, all of which represented the mythol- ogies and forms of religion which prevailed there. Illustrations of these points may be found among the living tribes, for each tribe presents a different architectural style. To illustrate : The round house of the Eskimos, the long house of the Iroquois, and the square house or the houses around the square of the Mobilians. are all indicative of differ- ent modes of government and different customs and conditions. We take then the tribes situated along the Pacific, especially those of the northwest coast. Mr. H. H. Bancroft has described these. He divided them into several classes, as follows: i. Hy- perboreans; 2. Columbians, Californians; 3. New Mexicans; 4, wild tribes of Mexico; 5. wild tribes of Central America. He has given descriptions of the peculiarities of each. From his '""Itftri'iiji'fiM'i ( '- ^ ^^ii^^i^re^^Sr^^^/^^^^gf^;^ HOUSES OF THE COMANCHES. \. HOUSES OF THE MANDANS. 249 descriptions we learn that different districts were occupied by different tribes, and that tribes differed in their employment, means of subsistence, social organization, types of architecture, as well as art products. Mr. Bancroft's division of the tribes seems to be somewhat arbitrary, as it is based mainly on the geographical location, without regard to language or race affinities. Still so far as architecture is concerned, it seems to be an excellent one, for the centers of population correspond with the architectural centers so closely that a division of this kind enables us to understand the subject clearly. An argument might be drawn from this, to be sure, to prove that the architectural qualities were altogether the result of geographical surroundings and that ethnical quali- ties had nothing to do with them. We acknowledge that there is much force in this thought, and are ready to recognize the fact that styles of building, as well as modes of living, were influenced Fig. 1 — Ground Plan of an Eskimo House. by the geographical causes, such as climate, means of subsistence and material for building. Still the tribal emblems of each tribe and race, we think^ may also be recognized in these material structures. This will be seen as we proceed. I. We take first the Hyperboreans Here we find five classes of people and five centers of population, all of them included under one general head, as follows: Eskimos, Koniagas, the Aleutians, the Thlinkeets and Tinnehs or Athabascans. All of these are still dwelling under the shadows of the midnight sun and drawing their subsistence from the waters which permeate the frozen regions of the north Their surroundmgs were very similar, their subsistence similar and their modes of life corre- sponded to their subsistence. We find, however, from their language, customs, and modes of architecture, the prevalence of totemism in the whole region. Bancroft says: "In all the nations of the north every well regulated village aspiring to any degree of respectability has its public or town house, which among the Eskimos is called the casinc or kasJiiiii. It consists of one large subterranean room, better built than the common dwellings, and occupying a central position, where the people 250 congregate on feast days." He says: " The /cas/iim or public house of the Koniagas is built like their dwellings and is capable of accommodating 300 or 40c people." This, it appears, was without carving or ornamentation, a plain place of assembly, one which was large enough to accommodate all who might gather in it. It was used as a public workshop, where are manufactured boats, sledges and snow-shoes. Among the Aleuts a religious festival is held in December, at which all the women of the village assemble by moonlight. There is also a custom of rep- resenting in their dances myths and legends, and of acting out a chase, one assuming the part of a hunter and the other a bird, each trying to escape the snare. Among the Thlinkeets there is the custom of ornamenting their houses with heraldic symbols and allegorical and historical figures, while in front of their principal dwelllifgs are carved figures representing the human face, crows, the heads of sea lions and bears. The Thlinkeets burned their dead, but the ashes are carefully collected in a box, covered with hieroglyphic figures and placed on four posts. The method of building their houses is very much the same among all these tribes. They have a summer and a winter house, the winter house being the most elaborate of the two. The common method of erecting this is to first dig a hole of the required dimensions to a depth of about six feet, erecting a frame upward two or three feet above the ground, and then placing a roof above. With the Eskimos the custom is to place a dome-shaped roof above the excavation. But of the Koniagas the custom was to dig a square space and to cover it with a square building, sufficiently large to accommodate three or four families. The habitation of the Fox Islands (Aleuts) consists of immense holes of one to three feet in length and from twenty to thirty feet wide covered with poles and earthed over, leaving several openings at the top, through which the ascent is made by ladders. The interior is partitioned off by stakes, and sometimes 200 or 300 people occupy one of these places. The Thlinkeets build sub- stantial houses of planks or logs, sometimes of sufficient strength to serve as a fortress. They are six or eight feet in height, the base is in the form of a square ; the roof of poles, placed at an angle of 45°, and covered with bark. The entrance is by a small side door. The fire is in the center of the room, but around the room are apartments or dens which are used as sweat- houses, store-houses and private family rooms. They exhibit considerable skill in carving and painting the fronts of their houses. Wherever they can find a place they paint or carve their crest and heraldic device of the beast or the bird designat- ing the clan to which the owner belongs. There are two great divisions or clans among them — the wolf or the raven. But the raven is divided into sub-clans, called the sea lion, the owl and the salmon ; the wolf into the bear, eagle, dolphin. See Fig. 2. 251 The Tinnehs or Athabascans generally dwell in villages and the people are called after the name of the region in which they dwell. Their winter houses or tenements are frequently made by opening a spot of earth to the depth of two feet, across which a ridge-pole is placed, supported at either end by posts. Poles are then laid from the sides of the excavation to the ridge-pole and covered with hay. A hole is left in the top for entrance and to let the smoke escape. Thus we see that a different method of constructing houses prevail with each one of these hyper- borean tribes. The same is true in regard to their canoes; while there is a general resemblance to their house architecture, F>g. 2— A Thlinkeet House, with a Thunder Bird for a Totem. yet each tribe had its own method of constructing a canoe, the Eskimo having one, the Thlinkeet another, the Athabascan an- other style, each easily distinguished as peculair to the tribe. 2. We take the Columbians next. These are divided into several tribes. First the Haidahs, Nootkas, Chinooks and Salish family. Here we find distinct architectural styles as well as dis- tinct race qualities, the two corresponding in all places, the cen- ters of population and the architectural centers being closely related, (i.) We begin with the Haidahs. Their permanent vil- lages are especially built in strong natural positions, guarded by precipices, sometimes on rocks detached from the main land, but connected with it by a narrow platform. Their houses are built of logs or of split planks, frequently large enough to ac- commodate a number of families. Poole mentions a house which formed a cube of 50 feet, 10 teet of it being dug in the ground, which accommodated 700 Indians. Their houses are 252 nicely constructed and stand in a row, having large images in front cut out of wood, representing idols. Dwellings have all painted fronts, imitations of men and animals. The sacred houses of the Haidahs are often raised above the ground on a platform supported by posts, which were carved with human figures and painted red and black. McKenzie speaks of a large building in the center of a village, the center posts representing persons with their hands upon their knees, as if they supported the weight with pain and difficulty, the others, however, stand- ing at ease with their hands upon their hips. The Haidah canoes are dug out of logs, sometimes 60 feet long, 6)4 wide, 4^ deep, accommodating 100 men. The prow and stern are curved like a swan's neck, and with a monster's head at the extremity. With respect to carving and a faculty for imitation, the people are equal to the most ingenious of the Polynesian tribes, whom they resemble. (2). The Nootkas choose strong positions for their towns and encampments. Each tribe had several villages in favorable locations for fishing at different seasons. The villages are sometimes built on detached rocks, with per- pendicular sides, and provided on the seaside with projecting platforms resting on timbers projecting from crevices. These are reached by ascendmg the cliff on a bark rope ladder. The houses, when more than one is needed for a tribe, are placed with regulaiity along the streets. A row of large posts, from ten to fifteen f.-et high, grotesquely carved, supports an immense ridge pole, sometimes lOO feet long, with other rows on either side. The whole was covered with split cedar planks. A house like this, 40 by 100 feet, accommodates many families, each of which has its allotted space partitioned off like a double row of stalls, with a passage in the middle. In the center of each stall is a circle of stones for a fire-place, and around the walls are raised couches covered with mats. The Nootkas display considerable taste in ornamenting their houses and implements with sculpture and paintings, the chief effort being made in the supporting posts, which are called totems. Figs. 3 and 4. The sound Indians, such as the Clallams and Chehalis, have tem- porary huts for the poor and substantial houses for the rich. The houses measure over lOO feet in front and are divided into rooms, several fire-places in each dwelling, raised benches around the sides, and walls lined with matting. (3). TheChinooks build dwellings of cedarplanks, with corner Hff. .1. Fig. Totem Posts. 253 and central posts, the eaves being four or five feet high, but an equal depth excavated in the ground. Partitions of planks sepa- rate the apartments of the several families ; the door is only large enough to admit the body. It was a favorite fancy of the natives to make this represent the mouth of a great head painted around it. In carving they are inferior to the Haidahs. (4). The inland dwellings are often built sufficiently large to accommodate several families, each of which has its own fire- place, but no dividing partitions are ever used. Holes are left along the side for entrance and mats and skins placed on the ground for a floor and the skins serve for beds. The evidence of ethnic traits in these tribes is manifest in the architecture as well as in the language and mythology. The dwellings are ar- ranged in small villages,*generally located in winter on the banks of small streams, a little away from the main rivers. Fig. 5— A Haidah House.' We give a series of cuts here to represent the architecture of this region. It will be seen from these that totemism was a marked peculiarity — that this totemism embodied itself in their architecture. In one case the wings and head of a gigantic bird cover the entrance to the house, forming a sort of piazza in front of the house. See Fig. 2. In another case there is the figure ol a whale and a fish carved in front ot the building, the opening being through the body of the fish. See F'S- S- This is a Haidah house. In the third case totemism embodies itself in the genealogocal trees, carved pillars being placed in front of the houses, the houses themselves being lett plain. See Fig. 6. There is a marked contrast between all of these houses and those of the Eskimos, pictures of which we have already given in previous numbers. We give two figures to illustrate the manner of constructing the supporting posts in the Haidah houses. These have been> 254 • described by Rev. Mr. Eells. His description corri-sponds to that already given by Bancroft and others. Thus we see that the architecture of this region varied with Jb^g.6~Totem Posts. the locality of the tribe, each tribe having a style peculiar to itself. It would seem as if there were centers of population and architectural centers, and 3et the houses, forts and other struc- tures were characterized by styles of ornamentation and by 255 ■ways of symbolizino^ and methods of carvinc^ which were pecu- liar to the reijion. VV^e do not know where the fashion came from, whether from Japan and the Polynesian Islands, or where, yet It was peculiar and strancre. Here we quote from Dr. Franz Boaz, who says: "The civili- zation of Northwestern America is not uniform. Three centers may be distinguished, which agree fairly with the linguistic divisions. The totemism of these g'-oups, their mythologies, their social organization and their tribal customs differ. An alleged similarity of Asiatic and northwest coast culture could not be recognized by him on this account. A similarity of the Kwakiutl, Salish and Tsimshian elements is out of the question. It is necessary to study the Haida element, and it may be that there a connection exists." 3. The Californians come next. These are divided by Ban- croft into lour classes — northern, central, southern and eastern, the first embracing the Klamaths, Modocs and Shastas, the second embracing the Tulares, the Yosemites, the Russia-river and many other insignificant tribes; the third embracing the tribes about Los Angeles and San Buenventura, but the last embracing the Shoshones, Bannocks, the Utes, the Pah-Utes, the VVashoes, and others. The California Indians as a general thing present a very regraded aspect; in fact may be regarded as about as low a grade of humanity as is found in the continent. Architecture would prove this even if there was no other evi- dence. "The habitation of the Klamath Indians is built in the following manner: a circular hole five feet in depth and var3'ing in diameter is dug in the ground. Around this pit stout poles are sunk, which are drawn together at the top until they nearly meet. The hole is covered with earth. The dwellings built bv the Hualpas are a little better. The inside of the cellar is walled up with stone, and at a distance of a few feet from it another stone wall is built on the surface. Heavy beams or logs are leaned up across this, meeting at the top." The position of the door varies, being sometimes on the roof, sometimes on the level, and sometimes high up in the gable. But the slope and dimensions of the door never vary. It is always circular, barely large enough to admit a full-grown man." "The house is the abode of a family. Each head of a family governs his own domestic circle as he thinks best, but there is a head man to each village and sometimes a chief to each tribe." The great institution of the northern Californians is the tcmescal, or 'sweat house,' which consists of a hole dug in the ground and roofed over in such a manner as to render it almost air-tiijht. It serves not only as a bath and medicine room, but also as a general rendezvous for the male drones of the village." X he central Californians are still more degraded than the northern. Their dwellings are as primitive as their dress In summer all they require is to be shaded from the sun, and 256 for this a pile of bushes or a tree will suffice. The winter huts are sometimes excavated three or four feet below the j^round and consists of willow poles with tops drawn together, formincr a conical structure, or with the upper ends drawn over and driven into the earth, so as to give a semi-globular shape. Each hut generally shelters a whole family of relatives, so that the dimensions of the habitation depends upon the size of the family. Thatched, oblong houses are occasionally met with in the Russia north valley in the form of a letter "L." In the center the different families of relations had their fires, while they slept next to the walls. The habitation of the people of Nevada and the greater part of Utah are very primitive and consist of heaps of brush, under which they crawl, or even a mere shelter of bushes, semi-circular in shape, roofless and three or four feet high. The Snakes or Shoshones build better dwell- ings than the Utes, and yet these are very primitive. Long poles are leaned against each other in a circle and are then covered with skins, forming a conical tent. We see, then, that the Californians, while they were divided into different tribes, were — owing to their degraded position — scarcely separable from one another. There was certainl}- no differentiation in their architecture for their dwellings, their re- ligious houses, their defences were all comprised in one, and that the rudest kind of a hut, and the tribes were only distm- guishable by their excess of filth and squalidness and degreda- tion. 4. The New Mexicans come next. These present an en- tirely different aspect from the Californians. Here we come upon the Apaches, Pimas, the Navajos, the Moquis and the Pueblo families. We shall, however, speak of them under an- other head, and therefore omit a description of their architec- ture. 5. The wild tribes ot Mexico and Central America follow next. These included the Quinames, the Olmecs, the Otomis, the Huastecs, the Miztecs. These, however, were once civi- lized races and we shall treat them under that head. Our view of the wild tribes will therefore cease with the mere mention. Enough has been said concerning their architecture to convince us that it was, to a certain degree at least, afiected by ethnic tastes and customs, though the social status and modes of life may have had much to do with it. li. We next take up the monuments found in the Mississippi valle}'. We are now brought into the region of the Mound- builders. These are strictly prehistoric, and yet their monu- ments are left for us to study. The position which we take is that the mounds and earth-works give evidence of a similarity of tastes. This similarity is exhibited by the tokens contained in burial mounds and by the earth-works themselves. We find in the same region a great diversity of structures, and are com- 257 pelled to ascribe them to different dates and to different styles. Here \ve would call attention to the contrast between the architecture of the southern tribes and that of the northern tribes. These tribes have been considered as belonging to the same race and as occupymg the same social status, mani- festing the same stage of progress, but when we study their architecture we find a great contrast, for it resembles that of the civilized tribes of the southwest far more than that of the un- civilized tribes of the northeast, showing that it had been borrowed from or had been influenced by the people of the southwest, and had perpetuated that influence for many gen- erations. THE CONICAL HOUSE OF THE WICHITAS. The following were the methods of constructing and orna- menting houses among the northern tribes : The Dakotas constructed theirs in the form of conical tents, out of poles, covered them with buffalo skins, and ornamented the sides with the clan-totems or with the dream-gods or some other figures suggestive of their mythology. The Comanches constructed theirs out of poles, but- thatched the outside with reeds and grass, in such a shape that they resembled so many stacks of hay. The Mandans constructed theirs out of heavy posts with 258 t.' 1 r cross timbers, and covered the whole with sod and placed th-.-i totem poles in front of the houses. The Ojibwas constructed theirs out of poles and bark b it in an oblonj^ shape, with the ends upright and a door at eich end. The Iroquois built theirs also with a fr^me work of p.>l and a covering of bark in an oblong shape, but with a long p s sage way running lengthwise of the hut, and places for diff ent fires in the passageway. The interior was divided i t > apartments for the different families. (See cut.) The Powhattans built theirs in about the same way as t e Iroquois, but the Seminoles constructed theirs put of po t-; which were set upright in the ground and pUced in a circu a shape, with a conical roof made out of rafters which w re thatched with reeds and grasses. These northern tribes made no distinction between t e houses of the chiefs and those of the common people, for tiiev LONG HOUSE OF THE IROQUOIS. were all of the same style and appearance, and were on a com- mon level and were generally placed in a circle about an opm area, sometimes with a stockade around them to protect the village. The only structures which were separate from the villages were be the forts on the hill or the burial places near by. When, however, we come to the Southern Indians of the Muskogee stock, such as the Creeks, Cherokees, Choctawsand Chickasaws, we find an entirely different system. These tribes dwelt in villages, but they were villages which resembled in a rude way the cities which were occupied by the Aztecs, Toltecs and various tribes of Central America. Among the points of resemblance, the most important one is, that the ruling classes and ofificials, such as the chiefs and their families, lived sepa- 259 rate from the common people and built their houses on the summits of the p\ ramids The priests, or medicins men, also had their tempic or rotundas upon the summit of conical .-v;.e^ ANCIENT VILLAGE SITE AT WALNUT BAYOU. mounds, the rotunda being used also for councils as well as for religious assemblies. Another peculiarity was that their so- called dead houses, or houses in which the bodies of the dead ANCIENT TOLTEC CITY AT TEOTIHUACAN. were placed, were full of treasures and contained many carved images which stood in a threatening attitude and were objects of terror to the common people, Still another point of resem- blance was, that the ceremony of reproducing the sacred fird 26o was practiced among these people — a ceremony which resem- bled that which occurred among the Aztecs once in every fifty years, at which time there were many human sacrifices, and the fire was reproduced by whirling the fire generator upon the body of a human victim. This strange ceremony involved the breaking of old pottery vessels and the cleansing of the houses, the use of new xessels, as well as the distribution of fire from the central altar to the fireplaces of the entire people, The most interesting point of resemblance between the archi- tecture of the Muskogees and of the Aztecs and Toltecs, is found in the temples or so-called rotundas, or places of as- sembly. The rotundas of the southern tribes were, to be sure, constructed out of wood and were rude in their appearance,, and yet when we come to consider their shape and general style of construction, the symbolism which was embodied in their ornaments, carved figures, also the general arrange- ment of the different parts and the use ot them, especially in connection with religious ceremonies, we shall find many very striking analogies. These rude and primitive temples, which were called rotun- das, with their covering of bark and their circle of seats or sofas on which the inmates lounged, with the fire in the center, were indeed very inferior to the massive stone structures which were wrought with such care and contained so many re- ligious symbols, and yet we may perceive a resemblance be- tween every part, for both represented apparently the great temple of the universe with its circular horizon and the dome of the sky surmounting it, the sacred fire being in the center beneath the dome and the lightnings playing in the form of serpents between the earth and sky, while the sun with its changes shone in from the four quarters. The symbolism which is contained in these great houses and rotundas of the Southern Indians is certainly very significant, especially con- sidering the fact that they so closely resembled that which pre- vailed among the so-called civilized people of Mexico and Cen- tral America, for it shows that they had contact with one an- other and may have belonged to the same stock, and originally migrated from the same center. There was, to be sure, as we have said, a variation in the style of building between these tribes, but it was a variation which was more noticeable in the houses of the common people than in the houses of the rulers or in the rotundas. Bartram describes these as being the same among the Cherokees, Choctaws and Chickasaws. The feature which furnishes the most striking resemblance between the works of the southern Indians and those of the Mexican tribes, and at the same time shows the greatest con- trast to the earthworks of the northern Indians, is the pyramid. The shape of the pyramids may be seen by examining the cuts, 26 1 one of which represents the pyramidal mounds which still stand at Walnut Bayou, near the Mississippi River ; and the other, the series of pyramids which are still found at Teotihua- can, in Mexico. The pyramidal mounds mark the site of an ancient village of the southern mound builders, a village in which the houses of the chiefs were placed above those of the common people, all of them arr.inged in a quadrangular form, but with stair- f^ /v/ N lil:±±±±±±±±±±±Sl 264 f: ^ eJIII] [III1-, 279 FT GROUND PLAN OF THE NUNNERY AT COPAN. ways leading from them to the open area in the center, while a long wall stretches away from the group on the side of the stream or bayou, thus furnishing a landing place for the people in time of high water. The truncated pyramids atTeotihuacan, on the other hand, mark the site of an ancient, prehistoric city, which was situated in a great plain. The houses of the u 1 ;■ cl asses in this city, however, were arranged as were those 262 of the village. They were all placed on the summit of the pyramids, but in quadrangles, all of them fronting the courts, which were enclosed .while a wide road, called the " Pathvyay of the Dead, led from the central temple to the gateway in the distance. The contrast between the village of the mound builders and and the city of the pyramid builders seems to be great, yet the foundations on which the two widely separated peoples placed their temples and the houses of the ruling classes are very similar. This resemblance between the works of the southern mound builders and of the pyramid builders of the southwest, can hardly be accounted for on the ground of ethnic relationship, inasmuch as the people at present speak different languages. Still there are traditions among the Muskogees to the effect that their ancestors migrated from the west and southwest, TPE PALACE AT PALENQUE. from the mountain of fire, and entered the region of the Gulf States many generations ago. That there was a resemblance in the arrangement of the apartments of the great house of the Muskogees and the apartments of the palace of the Mayas, may be seen from the cuts, which represent the ground plan of the palace called the Nunnery, at Uxmal, and the restora- tion of the palace of Palenque. Bancroft has described the Nunnery as follows: "This is perhaps the most wonderful edifice or collection of edifices in Yucatan, if not the finest specimen of aboriginal sculpture and archi- tecture in America. The supporting mound is, in general terms, 350 feet 263 square and iq feet high, its sides very nearly facing the cardinal points. The southern or front slope of the mound is about 70 feet wide and rises in three grades or terraces. There are some traces of a wide central stairway leading up to the second terrace. On the platlorm stand four of the typical Yucatan edifices, bnilt around a courtyard with openings between them and the corners. The southern building is 279 feet long, 28 feet wide, and 18 feet high. The northern, 264 feet long, 28 feet wide and 25 feet high. The eastern, 158x35 feet, and 22 feet high. The western, 173 feet long, 35 feet wide and 20 feet high. The situation of the four structures forming the quadrangle and the division of each into apartments, is shown in the ac- companying plan. Each of the four buildings is divided longitudinally into parallel ranges of apartments, arranged very much like those of the governor's house, with doorways opening on the interior court. They all present the same general features of construction — angular arched ceilings, stone rings on the inside of the doorways for curtains, holes in the sloping ceilings for hammock timbers, and an entire absence of openings except the doors. The sides and ends of each building are plain and unplastered below the cornice; above the cornice the whole surface — over 24,000 square feet for the four buildings— is covered with elegant and elaborate sculp- tured decorations. The four interior facades fronting on the court are pro- nounced by all beholders the chef de-ceiivres of the aboriginal decorative art of America, being more chaste and artistic and less complicated and grotesque than any other fronts in Yucatan," '\ .- JF-'->''-' -^"^ ^ a'-f.-^ ^^^ TOWER AT PALENQUE. There are two noticeable features which have not been men- tioned. Over the doorways of the southern court facades there is a representation of an aboriginal hut with the statue of the divinity seated within the hut, and a strange outre looking or- nament, called the " Manitou face," above the hut, the diamond lattice-work and vertical columns being sculptured in stone on either side of the hut. This hut, taken in connection with the general arrangement of the apartments and the resemblance to the rude wooden buildings described by Bartram as belonging to the great houses of the Muscogees, convinces us that the 264 beginnings of the architecture of the two regions were not far apart. The same lesson may be drawn from the view of the palace of Palenque, though this palace was much more elaborate in its style of construction and general finish than anything found in the Mississippi valley. Its broad stairways, its many halls and courts, the curved surface of the roofs, the height of the tower, the truncated pyramid supporting it, the apartments or galleries with walls of stone, the corridors which surround the apartments and affording communication to the interior, the sculptured figures on the front of the corridors and the facades of the palaces, are all in strong contrast with the rude wooden apartments which constituted the chief features of the great house, and yet the general arrangement of the buildings and the use made of the apartments are so similar as to suggest the same customs, habits and social organizations. This is the point which is impressed upon us by the study of these rude structures which formerly abounded in the Gulf States, as compared with those which were discovered by the Spanish conquerors in Mexico and Central America. We see in them the stages through which the architecture of the New World struggled, the very beginnings being presented by the uncivilized but sedentary tribes, the highest aims and triumphs being presented in the works of the more civilized races. The shape of the "great houses" and the arrangement of these houses around a square court, was the same among the tribes of the Gulf coast as among the Aztecs and other tribes of Mexico. The "great houses" among the latter are often called "palaces." They were very elaborate and striking in their sculptured ornamentation and in the massive cornices and lofty combs which arose above the roof. They were constructed of stone and are full of all manner of sculpture. They are approached by wide stairways, which are also lined with sculptured figures, yet so great is the similarity between them and the so-called "great houses" of the southern tribes that we naturally go to these to learn what were the early stages of this style of architecture. Bartram says: "The great or public square generally stands alone in the center or highest part of the town. It consists of four square or cubical buildings of one story in height, ot the same dimensions, and so situated as to form an exact tetragon, There is a passage at each corner, of equal width. Each building is constructed of a wooden frame fixed strongly in the earth and neatly plastered with clay mortar. One of these buildings is properly the council house, where the Mico,chiefs and warriors, with the citizens, assem- ble every day in council to hear, decide and rectify all grievances, com- plaints and contentions, give audience to ambassadors and strangers and hear news from distant towns, allies, or distant nations. This building is different from the other three, as a partition wall longitudinally placed from end to end divides it into two apartments, the back apartment totally dark. 26 5 making a secluded place, designed as a sanctuary, dedicated to religion or priestcraft. Here are deposited all the sacred things, as the medicine pot, rattles, deers' hoofs, calumet or peace pipe, the imperial standard, made of the feathers of the white eagle's tail, curiously formed and displayed like ■an open fan on a staff, pamled or tinged with vtrmillion in the time of war. The other three buildings which compose the square are furnished with three ranges of cabins or sofas, and serveas a banqueting house and shelter, to accommodate the audience and spectators at all times, particularly at feasts or public entertamments, where all classes of citizens resort day and night in the summer or moderate season." •'The pillars and walls of the houses of the square are decorated with various paintings and sculptures, which I suppose lo be hieroglyphic, and an historic legendary of political and sacerdotal affairs, but they were ex- tremely picturesqe as caricatures: as men in a variety of attitudes, some ludi- crous enough, others having the head of some kind of animal, as those of a duck, turkey, bear, fox, wolf, buck, etc.; and again, other creatures are rep- resented having the human head. These designs are not ill executed. The pillars supporting the front or piazza of the council house of the square, are ingeniously carved in the likeness of vast speckled serpents ascending upwards." The similarity between the house construction and orna- mentation of the southern tribes and that of the tribes in Mexico and Central America is noticeable but is difificult to account for, except on the supposition that there was a con- tract between the two people and that the same general sys- tem of government and distinction of classes existed in the two regions. We present here two cuts representing columns at Tulan in Mexico and at Chicheu-Itsa-Guatemuala. The first was a simple shaft ornamented with feathers, the base representing a serpent's head. The second has a capitol which is ornamented with human figures but supports an en- tablature and heavy cornice. These present the same con- ception which was recognized by Bartram in the houses of the Muskogees, especially those which were occupied by the rub'ng classes. They show how the ethnic styie of oue country was introduced into another, but upon the whole, confirm the position taken. This custom of placing the houses of the ruling classes on the summit of truncated pyramids, and around public square or courts, is distinctive of a state of society in which the many are controlled by a few. Such a state does not often exist among the hunters and savages, but generally appears among the agriculturists; though, on the northwest coast, the fisher- men who w^ere gathered in permanent villages, exhibit these different grades and ranks. The Southern or Muskogee tribes were the earliest, or the most primitive, to show this condition, but the tribes of the southwest carried it to great extremes. III. Another illustration of the prevalence of ethnic styles can be found in the various structures which formerly ex- isted on the great plateau of the west, where the form of house construction is entirely different from that found anywhere else, aud where also the style of house ornamentation is in the greatest contrast This was, as every one knows, the home 266 of the Pu=blosand the Cliff-Dwellers, but it is also a locality where a peculiar ethnic type of architecture is to be seen. The question is, How did this arise? Was it owing to the influence of environment, or did it arise from the social organization, combined with the mythology which had been inherited from an unknown ancestry. These people have long dwelt in the arid regions of the west, isolated and separated from the rest of the world, but they have developed in their isolation a mode of construction which is peculiar to the region, and totally unknown anywhere ehe in the world. They do not present any very high stage of architecture, nor any very advanced stage of art, but their method of constructing their houses and their style of decoratingtheir interiors as well as their SNAKE COLUMN. , , „ COLUMN AT CHICHEN-ITZA. style of ornamenting their pottery and works of art, are very unique. The snake dances of the Moquis, the sand paintings of the Navajos, and the house decoration and personal ornamentation of the Zunis, are well known, still there were so many archi- tectural features contained in those ruined villages, which con- stituted the abodes of the strange people called Cliff-dwellers, that there is a demand for a close study of their works. In the cliffs there were towers for defense; estufas for religious assem- blies; many storied houses for the dwelling places of the peo- ple; balconies for their loitering place; behind the houses were courts in which the children might play, and open places where 267 pottery was manufactured and where looms were set up; and farther back, under the cliffs, was the burying place for their dead, while hidden away in the niches of the rocks were the storehouses where they placed their grain; and above all were the loophole forts, from which the warriors shot their arrows into the bands of wild Indians, who were lurking in the valleys, and were constantly attacking them in their chosen places of refuge. When we consider all the dangers, and the difficulties with which the}' contended, we conclude that ihey did not fall far short of many of the cultivated races of the earth, even in the departments of art and architecture. It is especially worthy of notice, that all the buildings which have been discovered, CLIFF PALACE AT MAN'COS CANON.* whether in the high mesas and open places of the Pueblo coun- try, or in the deep canons and remote recesses in which the Cliff-dwellers made their refuge, that there was one particular type, or style, which they wrought out for themselves, without aid or suggestion from any source, except that which came from the study of their natural surroundings and the exercise of their own powers. It seems certain, to us, that if any people deserve the credit for having developed an ethnic type of architecture and art, these comparatively uncultured and strange people, whom we call the Cliff-dwellers, are the most deserving. There is very little ornamentation to be seen in the build- ings of the Cliff-dwellers or Pueblos. A simple dado around the inner rooms, and the use of different colored plaster, con- stituted about all of the ornamentation that was used. When, however, we come to the religious ceremonies and observan- • The Cliff Palace contained a tower for defense at one end, eitnfas in the middle, a lint ot Uiree-story bouses in the front, and an open court in the rear, the whole overshadowed by th* ■helving rock but protected by the steep cliff below. 258 A PUEBLO ALTAR. ces, we find an im;ii^nse amount of orna-nent itioa; all of i t grotesque, outre and bizarre. So whimsical is the costume of the performers in the sacred dances of the Tusayans, Mo- quis, and the Zunis, that they impress the visitor very strangely. They, ho w ever, embody the mythology of the people, and represent the va- rious creatures which are spo- ken of in it. There are, also, many so-called altars, which contain a vast amount of sym- bolism. These have been de- scribed by the various parties who have visited the pueblos — Dr. Washington Matthews, Mr. F. H. Gushing, J. Walter Fewkes, and others. Dr. Fewkes classifies the altars under two groups: those ar- ranged on the floor of the kiva, and those forming the uprights of a vertical frame-work. The former include the following objects: tiponis, effigies or idols, and medicine bowls. The tiponis are the badges of the relig- ious fraternities, and constitute the •'palladium" of the clan. They are totemic in character, but also contain symbols of food, and of seed, which constitute the sustenance of the agri- cultural people. Generally, an ear of corn, with appropriate wrappings and feathers, is very conspicuous. The idols represent the sky and earth gods, and are male and female. Ev- ery clan had a great sky-god, and an earth-god or goddess, the former be- ing the father, and the latter the mother of all the minor gods. The medicine bowl and other objects, are generally placed in front of the altar, on a low pile of sand, upon which are drawn six or eight lines of sacred meal, representing the six directions. On each of these lines of meal is an ear of corn, of the color cor- MASKED DANCERS. FooTNOTB. — Lieut. Simpson has described, in his report, the piinting upon the walli of an •ttnfa, at Jemez, and gave three or tour plates. In one of these there are two deer, gracefnlly depicted, painted in blue; in another, there are several birds painted in blue and bro wn, whil« shields are painted in red, green and white. In another, a large squash-vine is painted in blue, with a dark back ground; and, in another, there are several foxes painted in blue, two or *^'*« daer painted in' red and white, all against a dark back ground.— Sea Reports of Sbc. or War, Jnljr •4th, 1850. 26q responding to the directions or points of the compass— north, yellow; west, blue or green; south, red; east, white; above, black; below, speckled. Alternating with these ears of corn, are efifigies of birds and butterflies, also painted with different colors — yellow, blue, red, white, black, variegated. A very common symbol is the one which represents the rain-cloud (Omavvuh). an arch symbolizing the cloud; perpendicular lines representing the falling rain; zigzag markings representing the lightning There are often paintings and engravings upon the rocks, which sho»v the artistic taste of the Cliff-dwellers. In these paintings, the figure of a hand is very conspicuous. Some of their house paintings contain the traditions, and an account of VIEW OF MOQUI PUEBLOS. the wanderings of the people, and furnish legendary evidence of the combination of several tribes in one great village. They furnish the only clue to the history. The work upon "The Cliff-Dwellers," which has already been published, illustrates this point, and it does not need to be dwelt upon here ; but there are a few facts which should be brought out, and set in a new light. It is acknowledged by all, that the pattern vvhich was adopted by the Pueblos in building tneir "great houses," was borrowed from the shape of the mesas on which they built them; the terraces with which they abounded, being close imitations of the terraces which were seen in the cliffs. It is also acknowledged that the pattern which the cliff-dwellers followed in constructing their kivas, or religious assembly places, they took from the primitive hut 270 which constituted their primeval abode. This hut was evi» dently constructed out of wood, and was supported by posts; and was entered from the top, just as the huts of the California Indians are today. But along with this primeval pattern, there were introduced elements which, to them, became the symbols of the great house, whose roof consisted of the dome of the sky, whose floor was the surface of the earth, and whose sup- ports or posts consisted of the six great pillars which their mythology taught them, were the supports of the sky. Still further, they made the opening in the floor of the kivas. which they called the "sipapuh," to represent the "place of emer- gence," through which their ancestors, according to their in- herited mythology, came up through the different caves in which they had formerly dwelt. The roof of the cave was sym- bolized by the roof of the kiva; the sidesof the cave, by the walls of the kivas; and the openingthrough which they reached the upper surface, by the "sipa- puh"in the floor of the kiva. We have, then, a double symbolism in this simple structure which was used as the assembly place of the secretsocieties,andthe council house of the clan chiefs, as well as the sleeping place for the men of the entire village, the world above and the world below being both symbolized. There was a grandeur in the scenery about them, and an influence coming to them, from the shadowy cliffs below, which evidently impressed their senses and filled their souls with a reverence for the unseen divinities. One cannot look upon these many storied houses, kivas and courts, built upon the ledge of the rock, and covered with the overhanging cliff which formed the only roof of the houses, without thinking of the shadow of fear which constantly haunted them, and realizing that they were, after all, like fugitives who were fleemg from a cruel and relentless enemy. The ethnic style was drawn from the cliffs and niesas, but the form of construction was gained from their necessities as well as from the unconscious influence of the surroundings. The architecture of the Pueblos and Cliff Dwellers is very in- structive in this respect; it shows that the material which was used was owing to the abundance of stone; the manner of con- structing their houses and terraces was copied after the cliffs SCENERY IN THE PUEBLO REGION. 271 and mesas; the manner of arranging the houses and rooms was such that a dead wall would always be presented to those who, whether friendly or hostile, approached the village; but the manner of the arranging of the rooms of the houses, one above the other, placing the storerooms in the lower stories and the rooms of the chiefs on the upper stories, was owing to the com- munistic system which prevailed among them. The originality of this style of architecture came, in reality, from the teach- ings of nature combined with a unique system of society which prevailed among them. There may be certain analogies be- tween these so-called communistic houses, which were built after the honeycomb pattern, to the so-called palaces which prevailed among the nations of the southwest, in Mexico and Central America; but the differences are so many more than the resemblances, that we are forced to believe that there could have been no connection between them when they were first erected, and no borrowing from one another at any time. The ethnic type was one which originated in the very locality in which it appears. These Pueblos, when seen from a distance, on the summit of the mesas, appear like ancient castles, but as we come nearer we find that they are not castles at all, for there are no iron- bound gates, no grated windows, and no dark passages, which suggest tragic stories or romantic adventures; and yet they are castles, for they were, at one time, the places of refuge to a people who were constantly beset by enemies, and who had to protect themselves from the midnight attacks of the foe who Lrked in the shadows of the forest, or in the secret places among the rocks. Inside of these castles the scene was very peaceful, for here dwelt the different clans and families of a tribe, the families having all things in common, and sharing the different apartments; the village cacique, who occupied the upper apartment, being like a father to the household; and the village officers, who superintended the work and directed the employments, being like elder brothers of the family. This pueblo territory, which was fringed on its borders by the strange abodes of the Cliff-dwellers, presents, as we have said, a very peculiar form of house construction, and a peculiar style of ornamentation. But there were districts surrounding it, in which we find a style of constructing houses very different in all its features, the difference being due to the ethnic taste of a people who belonged to another stock, or race. We have not the space here to dwell upon these differences, and shall only refer to the few illustrations which are furnished herewith. It will be noticed that, upon the Gila River, which flows around the southern and western borders of the Pueblo territory, there are certain great structures, in rectangular forms, which resem- ble massive temples more than they do fortresses, though they are called castles. Another distinct tvpe is also presented, in 272 the province of Sonora, the first having received from the Span- ish the name of Casa Grande, the other the name of Ca'^as Grandes, the singular and the plural, suggesting the main dif- ference between them. Still farther south, amid the mountains of Sonora, are deep valleys, on the sides of which are hidden a number of houses, which are quite different from those be- fore described. The style of the storehouses and the shape of the abodes present features which are not seen anywhere else" TOLTEC ALTAR AT TEOTIHUACAN. IV. The best illustrations of the ethnic types of architecture, are found among the so-called civilized races of the southwest. These races were divided, as every one knows, into two or three great stocks, of which the Nahuas and Mayas are the chief, though the Aztecs and Toltecs are among the latest rep- resentatives. The general opinion is, that there were only two styles of architecture to be found in this entire region— one of them represented by the various cities of Mexico; the other, by the cities farther south, in Z-ir- TOLTEC COSTUMES. Yucatan, Guatemala and Honduras; but recent explo- rations are showing that there was here a great variety in the method of construction, as well as in styles of ornament- ation, as each tribe, or collec- tion of tribes, had a stj-le peculiar to itself, exactly as did those on the northwest coast, and in the Mississippi valley. This will be seen by com- paring the ruins at Xochicalco, near the City of Mexico, with those at Mitla; and again, by comparing those at Mitla with the ruins at Papantla and Mayapan, all of them situated in provinces of Mexico. And these, in turn, should be compared with the ruins at Palenque, Uxmal and Chichen-Itza. which were cities situated in Honduras and Guatemala. There are also ruined cities in Yucatan, Salvador and Nicaragua, which differ from all the others before mentioned. Here, also, the strangest idols, and nondescript animal figures, are found north of that line. Now, it is noticeable that among the Aztecs and other tribes of Mexico and Central America, there are many of those 273 mythologic figures which are made up of a variety of human faces and forms, mingled with figures of the serpent and other nondescript creatures, all of which are sculptured on the facades of the palaces, the statues of the kings and queens be- ing placed in the courts in front of the palaces, with altars near them. The statues represented, not merely the form and features of the king or queen, but even the ornaments with which they were adorned while living, and various parts of the gorgeous apparel and headdresses which they wore, all boldly represented in the figures, which are carved with the utmost skill and accuracy into the stone pillars. The ornamentation of the facades and the portrait columns are also finished in the highest style of aboriginal art. The ancient inhabitants of Mexico had methods of orna- FIGURES PAINTED ON INTERIOR WALLS. menting their houses which are worthy of study. There are many ancient ruins in this region, whose facades present a great variety of sculptured figures Some of them present the shapes of serpents and nondescript animals, which were the products of their mythology. The ancient palace at Xochicalco, is es- pecially noted for its sculptures. This has been described by various explorers, the latest being Mr. M. H. Saville. There are ^Iso ancient ruins at Teotihuacan, which contain houseswith large and elaborate suites of apartments, all of them well built and highly ornamented. Prof. Starr has described one of these houses, as follows: •' The walls were covereJ w ith elaborate paintings, representing human beings, in fine garments and gorgeous headdresses. The colors used are green, red, pink, orange and brown. The most important figure maybe seen in the cut; here we have a warrior, carrying a shield and weapons, terminating at the lower ends with balls, painted green; the shafts painted 274 green and pink; the shield, green and yellow; the right hand grasps a curious dagger, painted yellovv, and held vertically. On the liead the war- riur wears large ear or- naments and a head- dress, ending in agreat crest of feathers, the central parts of which are painted green. The most elaborate paint- ings are on the south- ern wall of this room; two figures are repre- sented, veiy similar in all respects. They face an altar which stands between them; the al- tar consists of a base in rose and red, with a streak of yellow; the upper part is an orna- mental disc of pink, red, white and yellow, the whole design bor- dered at the sides with ornamental bands. Of the standing figures,, the faces, hands and legs are painted yel- low; the headdresses of feathers are large, and ,in white or pale pink. A great coil of yellow proceeds from the mouth of each, with nodes on the coils; these probably repre- sented speech. On the left hand is clasped a pendant object, which may represent offer- infifs. painted in pink, white and red." CORNER AT LABNA. V. We see in these paintings a style of decoration which was common among the Toltecs, for the)' are found at Teoti- huacan which is supposed to have been an ancient ToltCv. city. There was however another style which prevailed farther sotith in the region of Guatemala, Honduras and Yucatan and was common among all the Maya tribe.s. It consisted not so much in the decorating of the interior as in the ornamenting of the exteriors by sculptured figures in stone. Illustrations of the first are found in the ruined cities of Uxmal, Chichen- Itza, Kabah, Labna Zayi and of the latter mainly at Palenque There are also in these cities many architectural features which are worthy of notice as nearly all of the buildings are finished with heavy cornices, wide entablatures, columns which are placed in clusters at the corners of the buildings, the sides of the doors, and often-times between the door-ways. The most of them are without capital or bases but are ornamented with CLIFF DWELLINGS IN SONORA. CLIFF PALACE IN MANCOS CANON, COLORADO. FACADE OF THE NUNNERY AT CHICHEN-ITZA GENERAL VIF.VV OF PALACES AT UXMAL. 275 bands at the centre and ^ome of them with a sculptured base and top. These columns are found mainly in the palaces and form an interesting feature in the facades of these great build- ings which were placed in a quadrangular form and some- ti mes placed on terraces which arose one above the other and were furnished with a high tower which made them appear very imposing. The palaces also have their facades decorated with a complicated series of carving which are difficult to describe The most singular object is that which has been called the elephant's trunk, though it more resembles an ornament which is common in lapan. Illustrations are numerous. Here, in one place, at Chichen-Itza, a temple-with its front a mass of intricate c arv- ing, placed high upon a terraced mound — oxer- looked the en- tire collection of dwellings. Along each front of this high mound, ex- tended the un- dulating body of a huge serpent, carved out of blocks of stone. High upon the platform of the temple rested the tail, while the gigantic head, with jaws wide open and forked tongue extended, lay menacingly upon the level plain at the base of the mound. At one side, an immense terrace supported a massive structure, over three hundred feet long, of many turns and angles. It was a gigantic mosaic of marble and limestone. The rooms were narrow and windowless, but the entire front wascovered with richly carved stonework, "^he difference between the decorations at Labna and Kabah are very marked. At Laba« there is a serpent effigy, with open jaws and a human face in the jaws, projecting beyond th« cornice, and forming a part of '.he characteristic hook, while behind the jaw, and above and b«- l»w the serpent, are scrolls, palm leaves, Greek fret, rosettes, and other ornaments, while below the cornice are banded columns, and open doorways with pier and liotel. On the other Hand, at Kabah there are fragments of the usual hooks, tut the figures between them farm a compli- cated network which resembles the pattern, which is often used in the drapery of the better classes, though the figures may have been designed for symbols. FACADE OF PALACE AT KABAH. 276 over which was placed a thin coat of hard stucco, gh'stening white and shining like silver, The flat roof was covered with the same material, and from the eaves projected gargoyles of grotesque type. The hook at Kabah, extends out from the corner of the build- ing, making a unique feature to the architectural decoration, and one that is characteristic of this region. There is also at Labna, in Yucatan, a mound forty-five feet high, which suj. ports a build- ing 20x30 feet, on which is a row of death's heads, two lines of human figures in high relief, an immense human figure, seated, also a ball or globe supported by a man kneeling on one knee, and by another man standing at its side. All the figures are painted in bright colors, and present the most curious and ex- traordinary appearance. Near by is a terrace 400 feet long and 150 feet wide, which supports a building of two receding stories, with a front of 282 feet. This front is elaborately sculptured, and presents three distinct styles in as many por- tions of the wall. At the corner is the open rriouth of an alli- gator, from which looks out a human face; back of this corner are scrolls and palm leaves, and decorations resembling the Ro?na?i key ; and below it, the series of columns clustered to- gether, with bands around the center and at the bottom; the doorways were divided by a heavy column, with a square block for a capitol, with two lintels resting upon the block for sup- port. The palaces at Xkichmook, about fifty miles east of Cam- peche. have been explored by Edward H. Thompson, for the Field Columbian Museum. Of these, two of the edifices are represented in the plates, which have been kindly loaned. The palace appears to be the result of successive periods of growth; all of the chambers are finished in the usual style; the roof is vaulted with the Maya arch; there is a tower in the cen- ter, with a wide staircase in front of it; the cornice on the tower and on the palace proper, correspond in style, There are the remains of columns in the facade, and shorter columns in the entablature. Another palace, resembling this, has also many columns, but they are of a different type, and show a variation in style. RUINED PALACE AT XKICHMOOK — THE NORTHWEST, CHAPTER XIV, ARCHITECTURE OF CIVILIZED RACES OF AMERICA MONUMENTS AND PYRAMIDS OF AMERICA COMPARED WITH THOSE OF THE CLD WORLD. It is well known that the American continent contains the traces of a civilization which existed here long before the advent of the white man. What that civilizations was and what its position in the ranks of the other civilization of the world is an important question. It was the impression at the time of the discovery that there was, hidden away in the interior of this con- tinent, a civilization which was quite equal to that which prevailed in most of the European countries. The ancient cities which were then discovered were compared to the cities of the eastern hemisphere. This impression was produced by the reports of the conquerors and by the testimony of the historians, and was not lessened as the conquests proceeded. It appears that new regions were opened before the conquerors and new cities were discovered, each city yielding an untold amount of gold and silver, and astonishing the people with the magnificent specimens of art and architecture which they presented. It was indeed a tale of wonder and one which excited the greatest surprise throughout the whole of Europe: first, Mexico, with its wonder- ful mountain lakes, its floating gardens, its streets and bridges, its magnificent palaces, its lofty pyramids and many temples; next, Yucatan, with its ancient cities, its tropical verdure, and its many and varied scenes; next, Peru, with its marvelous display of gold and other treasures, its populous villages, its paved, far- reaching roadways, its powerful system of government, its wonderful Inca dynasty. It was an era of romance and adven- ture. The world was ready to receive strange tidings, was glad to hear the tales of wonder which followed in close succession. The impression which was formed so early did not soon die away. The testimony of the historians seemed to confirm it, each new author adding to the story some marvelous feature. The impression has continued almost to the present day, and modern historians have thought to vie with the early writers in their descriptions of the magnificence which then prevailed. It was only during the present generation that any doubts arose as to the truthfulness or accuracy of these accounts; but when they arose a literary reaction took place and many have been inclined to go to the opposite extreme. This tendency has also been increased by certain scientific writers, who have been disposed to look upon the accounts of the Spanish historians as altogether imaginative, and have endeavored to reduce everything to a plain matter-of-fact and ordinary condition, such as might correspond with their own theories of the civilizations of the continent. These writers have considered the populations of America to be all the same, calling them all Indians, and have reduced all the systems of government and all the conditions of society under one gen- eral class, which with its variations might be in accord with the communistic state and the clan life. Thus we have the two ex- tremes It will be our endeavor in this paper to so balance the probabilities and weigh the evidence as to decide which of these two classes of writers is the more correct, and to ascertain what the truth is concerning the ancient civilizations of this continent. While so doing we shall avoid the descriptions of the historians and the speculations of the scientific theorists, and shall seek evidence from an entirely different source: namely, the testimony of the monuments. It is well known that new monuments have been discovered and that the old monuments have been studied anew, and much additional testimony has been furnished, so that if there were no other reason than this, this of itself would be sufficient for us to go over the ground and take again the testi- mony of the monuments. So many explorations have occurred during the last thirty and forty years that we can not ignore them, but must take the descriptions which have been furnished by the explorers, and see whether they confirm or refute the testimony of the historians. The testimony which we shall specially examine will be that which comes under the department of which we are treating: namely, primitive architecture. We are to examine the prehistoric monuments to ascertain what their testimony is in reference to architecture. Is it the architecture of a civilized race which they present? If so, what is the posi- tion as compared with the architecture of other civilized races? If compared with that of the prehistoric and uncivilized, what rank or parade did it reach ? With what age is it to be compared? What style does it represent ? What are its peculiarities ? We turn then to the monuments for our evidence. The point which we make is that the monuments furnish a sure index of the civilization, for they not only show the position which was reached by the art and architecture, but also the grade of culture which was reached by the people. Our manner of treating the subject will be by comparison. We are to compare the prehis- toric monuments of this country with those of the historic races of the Old World, but we are to take only those which belong to the civilizations of both countries. There is one thing notice- 279 able about the monuments of America: they overlap the early- stages of the civilizations of historic lands, and they show after close examination exactly the stage or grade which was reached in this country during the prehistoric times. We shall first take the monuments of all sections and races in America, comparing those of the civilized with those of the uncivilized races, with a view of ascertaining the difference be- tween them. We shall next take the monuments of the civilized races in America and compare these with the works of the civil- ized races in the Old World, with the view of tracing the resemblances. Our main effort will be to show the position which the American civilization holds among the ancient civilizations of the world. One point which we shall consider is that there was more difference between the ty^pes of civilization in America than some are inclined to admit. We are to remember that the American continent embraced peoples of very different grades and charac- ter. The Aztecs, Toltecs, Nahuas and Mayas were of a different stock from most of the northern tribes of Indians, although the name Indian has been applied to all. As to the source from which these different races or tribes may have come or the date at which they migrated we are not able to speak intelligently, for these are still involved in obscurity. It is also worthy of note that there are as great differences in the architecture of America as in the Old World, We learn this from the study of the monuments here as well as there. The monuments of Europe, Asia and Africa all convince us that civilization developed in different lines, and embodied differ- ent ethnic qualities , so do the monuments of America. The development may not have been as marked nor did it reach as high a stage, yet so far as it did reach it convinces us that there > were distinct lines. It is well known that the historic nations of ^ the Old World all had an architecture of their own — an archi- tecture which was marked by ethnic peculiarities, so we may say that the nations and races of America had. The nations of the Old World have given their names to their architecture; and we have the Chaldean, the Assyrian, the Egyptian, the Hellenic, the Etruscan and the Italian styles. The American nations have not given any name, and yet we have terms which distinguish the works from one another, and these may be regarded as equivalent. The names are not as dignified nor as honored, and yet they are expressive. The prehistoric monuments have already been classified according to these names, and the Indian, the Alound- builder, the Pueblo, the Aztec, the Nahua, the Maya, and the Peruvian style of building have all been recognized. The early stages of architecture in the Old World were marked by dissim- ilarities, and they can be traced back to causes which prevailed in prehistoric times. In America the architecture is nearly all of 280 it prehistoric, but the dissimilarities are here to be observed in the early and primitive as well as in the later or more advanced stages. In the Old World we go from one country to another and trace the correlation between the architecture and the geo- o-raphical surroundings and physical environments, and say that climate, soil, means of subsistence, employment and social status, all had their mfluence upon the architecture. In America, however, we have the same correlation ; each district and each native race had an architecture of its own ; an architecture which was influenced by the environment. It might also be said to present a picture of the native cult as well as the social status. It was not only true that different grades of art and architecture appeared in different parts of the coun- try, but different ideas and traits were embodied in them. The geographical surroundings and the physical environm.ents had much to do with this, the growth of architecture on the continent having obeyed the laws of development as well as the necessities of the people. We have on this account no less than five differ- ent styles of architecture ; each style being suggestive of a differ- ent social grade as well as of a different mode of life. The em- ployments varied according to the means of subsistence and these were influenced by the geographical surroundings ; but the primi- tive architecture partook of all. The same story is repeated here that may be read in the early architecture of the east ; the sand plains of Chaldea, the dry climate of Egypt, the rock-beds of Assyria, the deep forests and mountainous coasts of Asia Minor, the sunny fountains of the Hellenic regions, the snowy heights of Etruria, and the gentle hills on the banks of the Tiber, were all crov/ned with monu- mental structures which indicated the life employment, social status, and ethnic tastes of the people. It is so in America ; the ice-fields in the north, the deep forests of the interior, the fertile prairies of the east, the rocky mountains and deep canyons of the west, the sunny heights and sand plains of the south were all covered with the works of the prehistoric races which differed as much as those of the historic. There were, to be sure, several grades of civilization in this coun- try, and these overlapped as many grades in the Old World. Yet we may by comparison ascertain the limits of each, and we may find also the stages of civilization which were correlated to these grades. It is plain that civilization here passed beyond the earliest stages discovered elsewhere, and that it reached a posi- tion which entitled it to stand alongside with that found among some ot the more advanced of the ancient kingdoms of the Old World. There are indeed some features of it which seem very rude, and if we were to confine ourselves to these we should say that civilization here was at a very low stage, but there are other features which carry it on to a high degree, and if we dwelPupon 281 these we shall be convinced that it was at an advanced stage. The question of time is not to be considered, but only the ques- tion of degree. In time,, the civilizations of the Old World ante-dated by many centuries those of the New World, the earliest rise having been there as early as 2300 B. C; but here perhaps not earlier than 600 years after Christ, a lapse of nearly three thousand years being found between them. As to the styles of architecture, however, we may conclude that the early stage which Fill. l~Tciiiple of Muyhcir. was represented by the Chaldean empire has its correlative among the monuments of America, but at the same time the stage which was reached by some of the later Assyrian mon- archies has also its correlative. There is significance in this fact. The civilization of the New World had a much more rapid growth than that of the Old World, and yet it seems to have been a growth which was independent and in a parallel line, but separated and isolated. • I. We begin with the earliest stage and take the pyramid as the structure which represents it. There are pyramids in America as well as in oriental countries. V/e therefore have a good opportunity for comparison. The pyramids of America may not be as old as those of Egypt or Chaldea, and yet they are nearly as primitive, and so illustrate the primitive stage of arch- itecture. We shall first take up the pyramids of the Old World and show the differences between them as well as the resem- 282 blances, and then compare the American with them. The first specimen will be the famous Temple of Mugheir, which is said to date back to the times of Abraham, and even before. Fig. i. According to Rawlinson it was dedicated to the sun divinity, and was first founded by King Urukh 2230 B. C, the name Ur being suggestive of the Biblical Ur of the Chaldees. The kernel of this solid structure is of sun-dried bricks ; the face is divided by buttresses. There are the remainsof a terrace, which consists of two oblong steps, the lowest measuring 60x40 metres, 12 metres in height, standing upon a platform six metres above the surround- ing country. This is the oldest temple in the world. It is Fig. 2.— Temple of Borsippa. supposed that the Chaldean temple consisted of a simple and massive terrace, crowned by a chapel and richly decorated with gold ornaments ; the sides plainly buttressed and solid through- out. The next specimen is that given in the cut which represents the Temple of Borsippa, which tradition makes the same as the tower of Babel ; though it was frequently rebuilt, Nebuchadnez- zar completing the structure, called it the Temple Pyramid of the Seven Spheres. See Fig. 2. This immense hill of rubbish stands entirely isolated in the desert. It has a lower circumference of 685 metres. It is un- certain whether it was all artificial or whether a natural elevation was selected on which to erect a terraced temple. It appears that it was a temple devoted to sun-worship, as many of the terraced temples in Chaldea were. The dimension agrees toler- ably well with the six stadia given by Herodotus, as the measure of the first step of the terraced pyramid. There were regularly diminished seven steps in this pyramid, and upon the summit 283 stood the small temple which was devoted to the sun divinity. Each of the seven terraces was dedicated to one of the seven planets and was characterized by its color — the upper, gold ; the second, silver; the next, red, blue, yellow, white, and the lowest black, according to the colors assigned to the sun, the moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn."* The next specimen represents the pyramid of Meydoum,(see Fig. 3), a pyramid which was erected soon after the pyramid of Gizeh. It shows the manner of constructing pyramids in E:^ypt, namely in terraces, exactly as the pyramids of Assyria were constructed. There is to be sure a difference between them, in that the steps of the Assyrian pyramids are broader and farther apart than in the Egyptian. The difference is owing to the fact Fig. S— Pyramid of Mcydoum. that the object in Assyria was to erect a structure on which pro- cessions could ascend, and on the summit of which a shrine or temple could be constructed ; while in Egypt it was to construct a tomb in which their kings might be buried. The pyramids in America were in this respect more like the pyramids of Assyria or Chaldea. They were connected with palaces and were used as shrines and temples and for sacrificial purposes ; the kings having their abode in the palaces close by those of the priests. As to the manner of constructing the pyramids, there was a difference between the Chaldean and the Egyptian. The re- mains in ancient Chaldea are generally nothing more than form- less heaps of rubbish, many of which have not yet been opened; but enough of them have been opened to show the manner of their construction. In Egypt the pyramids were built of layers of solid stone with a large chamber in the center. In Chaldea *See History of Ancient Art, by Reber,|page 57. 284 they were built of brick, and were solid throughout, making up by thickness of the masonry for the firmness lacking in the ma- terial. They further strengthened the massive walls, with a facing, or with buttress-like piers of burnt brick. The Chaldean temple consisted of a single massive temple of few steps, crowned }.^ ^'^^ '^^ (■ ^' •?!-/■ B S o 8 by a chapel, which was richly decorated with colors and gold ornaments, with gold plating to represent the sun. In America the pyramid was built in terraces and may have bee solid throughout, though there are evidences that some of them contained arched chambers within the mass, and yet those which were solid had air-channels similar to those found in Chaldea. The specimen which we first select in America for comparison 285 is that of Cholula. See Fig. 4. This is one of the largest and perhaps one the most ancient of the American pyramids. What is more, there is a tradition of the deluge connected with it. The method of constructing this pyramid was by terraces, the terraces being made on the sides of a natural hill, but the sum- mit crowned by an artificial pyramid and temple. We here call attention to the resemblance between the American and the Q-r-ldcnn pyramids. One peculiarity of the American pyramid was that it was partly natural and partly artificial. This was also the case with the Oriental pyramids. Reber says "that the terraced pyramids of Koyundjic was a terraced structure of three or four steps, situated upon a natural elevation." The lower terrace is decorated with pilasters in low relief. This is one of the earliest of the Oriental temples. Fig. 5— Pyramid at Copan. We refer to another specimen of an American pyramid to illus- trate this point. It is* a pyramid found in Peru— a pyramid built in terraces, the terraces on the side of a natural elevation. We do not claim this to have been a temple, for it was a fortress — the fortress of Huatica. Yet terraces on the side of the hill show how the pyramids in America are constructed. There is another heap of ruins in Peru, a cut of which we do not pre- sent. This was the temple of Pachacamac, twenty miles south of Lima. It was constructed of terraces and was devoted to the worship of a fish -god, and is said to have been resorted to by pilgrims from all parts of the coast. Some maintain that the Incas erected on the summit of this hill, a temple of the sun. There are rooms in this temple which are filled with enormous quantities of earth, though how it came to be there is unknown. The ruins are largely artificial, but it is supposed that the cen- 286 tral core of them is natural, but that the terraced pyramids sus- tained or supported an ancient temple of magnificent proportions. Other specimens of American pyramids are found in widely separated localities and embrace structures which were devoted to very different uses, but they show the American peculiarities. The pyramids were used here for fortresses as well as for tem- ples. In fact pyramids sustained palaces as well as temples and both were regarded as fortresses. In Peru the differentiation may have been more marked, for there are pyramids which were used for fortresses, others for burial towers, and still others for Fig. 6— Pyramids of the Sun and Moon at Teotihuacan. temples, while in Central America they were all combined in one. Another point in connection with the pyramid in America is that in finish and elaborateness it was unexcelled by any of the pyramids of the Old World. The Egyptian pyramids were very plain structures. They were never covered with carving and never showed art or architecture at a high stage. The terraced pyramids of Assyria were much more advanced than these, but the pyramids themselves, if we leave off the palaces which were built upon them, were not at all equal to those in America. We give two specimens of perfect pyramids which have been found in America, namely, 'the pyramids of Copan and those at Teotihuacan; these we think compare with any of the Egyp- tian pyramids in symmetry and beauty, though they are not as large. Fig. 5 and 6. If, however, we were to restore the palaces 287 which formerly stood near these pyramids and could show the broad path of the dead, so-called, lined with the elaborate struc- tures which have now disappeared, we should conclude that the American civilization was fully equal to the Egyptian at the time that the pyramids were built. These pyramids arc, however, not the best. There are pyramids at Tusapan and Papantla, which have their exteriors built up with seven terraces, each terrace having an elaborate cornice, with panels below the cornice. Tall buttresses also project from the terraces, forming a massive and elaborate finish to the whole structure. There is at Chichenltza also a pyramid which has a stairway running up its entire side, which in massiveness and breadth and elaborateness of detail is not exceled by any of the stairways of the Assyrian palaces. Charnay has spoken ol this pyramid and has given a new and interesting description of it. The same is true of the pyramid of Uxmal, at Tikal, Kabah, Izamal and several other places. The south side of the pyramid at Izamal is built up of stone, laid without mortar and rounded offat the corners.* On its side near the basement stands a gigantic face, which was reproduced by Stephens, 7 feet 8 inches high, the features rudely formed by small rough stones fixed in the side of the mound by mortar, and afterwards perfected by stucco. The pyramid at Ake has also a face, and has also in its side a colossal head 13 feet high, formed by rough stones coated over with mortar, and one of the finest bas-reliefs, its principal subject being a crouching tiger with a human head, reminding us of the order of knighthood in which the tiger had the pre-eminence. It would appear from this that the pyramid in America combined the massiveness and solidity of the Egyptian, the terraced form of the Chaldean, the walled and palace-crowned quality of the Assyrian, and at the same time embodied the carved specimens which resemble the sphinxes of Egypt, and sustained on their summits temples and palaces which remind us of the Medean and Persian. There is certainly nothing in all this to show that the American architecture was of an inferior or low grade, but there is everything to show that it was equal to that of the civilized races of the ancient mon- archies even in their most advanced stage. The style of the pyramids, however, does not fix the status of American civilization. There is evidence enough to show that the architecture of America passed beyond this elementary stage. We have dwelt upon the particulars only to show that there were elements or features which were like the early stages of architectures in the Old World. We now turn to consider the more adv^anced stages. We here find rememblances to the Assyrian style of building. It will, of course, be acknowledged that there was a similarity between the early Chaldean and the *See Reber's History of Ancient Cities, p. 30J. 288 later Assyrian, but the Assyrian was much more advanced of the two. Rebcr says "that the difference arose chiefly from the superior material at the builders' disposal in Upper Mesopota- mia. The terraces of Assyria, like those of Chaldea, were solidly constructed of sun-dried bricks and stamped earth, but the neighboring mountains provided stone for the complete re- vetment of these masses with quarried blocks. Carefully hewn slabs existed upon the terrace platform of Sargon's palace, and upon the substructure of the pyramid of Nimrud, while there was rough Cyclopean stone-work employed in the construction of the city walls at Kisr-Sargon."'^ II. We next come to the walled structures of America. Here again we have all the variety which we find in the Old World, and we may believ^e that even these passed through many stages of de- velopment. I. We first con- sider the Cyclopean wall. We take this wall as the earliest found in America as well as in the East. See Fig. 7. This might be regarded as evidence of a very primitive type of architecture. It is Mrj. 7-Cyclopean Wall in Cuzco, Peru. generally SUppOSed to belong to the earlier ages. "Between the Tiber and the river Arno there existsextensive remains of Cyclopean masonry as well as walls of hewn and squared stones. The age of these works an usually be roughly estimated ; they are evidently of later anti- quity than the carefully fitted masonry, the irregular horizontal courses of unequal thickness which form the older Latin ram- parts, and these precede in point of time the exactly pointed blocks of the Servian walls of Rome."t There are many specimens of walls in America, which resemble those built by the Etruscans, Pelasgians and early Latins, though they had an entirely isolated history and cannot be traced to any other country. We give here a cut to illustrate this point. It is a wall found in Cuzco, Peru. See Figs. 8 and 9. This city, it appears, stands on the slopes of three hills. The ancient builders had to resort to extensive terracing in order to secure level sur- faces on which to build. These terraces, built in a substantial *See History of Ancient Art, by Reber, p, 62. tReber, History of Ancient Art, p. 4U. 289 manner and faced with stone, are still standing in many places. It is a part of a fortress which was a remarkable structure. The walls support terraces, but they rose above the terraces so as to form a parapet, and yet they projected out at angles so as to form bastions. The height of the outer wall is at present 27 feet, the mi^^^^2^^ Fig. S— Terrace Walls in Fortress at Cuzco. width of the terrace 35 feet; the second wall is 18 feet high, terrace 18 feet wide; the third is 14 feet high. To prevent the accumulation of water, channels were cut through the walls at regular intervals. This structure constituted a citadel which over- looked the city of Cuzco. The height was very precipitous and the ascent difficult, but it was a place of resort in time of danfjer. There is another ex- ample of the Cyclopean wall in the Temple of the Sun at Cuzxo, which is the grandest structure in the region. The Cy- clopean wall forms the foundation for the tem- ple, but the temple itself is built of regular blocks of stone, with perpendic- ular walls and with the corners rectangular and perforated by windows, very similar to a modern building. The structure has been modified and now contains a balcony and arched windows and modern additions, three types of architecture in one building. In reference to the walled structures of America it would seem as if they gave a complete history of so-called wall-architecture. There are walled chambers or cists among the mounds, walled houses among the Cliff-dwellings, walled palaces and temples among the ruins of the ancient cities as well as the walled fort- Fig. 9 — Section of Terraces in Fortress at Cuzco. 290 resses found in Peru. It is interesting to notice the v^ariety and at the same time to study out the various ages of development. We give cuts here to shovsr this point. The first represents a stone cist in a mound in Missouri. See Fig. lo. The second repjesenls different kmds of masonry in walls of the Cliff'- dwellers' houses. See Fig. ii. The third represents a wail found on the mesa in Colorado. Fig. 12. It may be the remains of an old pueblo house. The fourth is the two- storied, walled house in the ruins on the island of Titicaca. The fifth is the structure at Uxmal called the Governor's House. These five cuts give us the different specimens of walls found on the continent of America, and represent the different grades of architecture prevalent, namely that of the Mound- Mg.io—,s(onc oiM in a Mound builders, the Cliff-d wellers, the Pueblos, in3iis,ouri ^^^ Peruvians, the Central Americans. It will be noticed that as we ascend in the scale, the wall is more complete and finished; that of the civilized races of Central American being the most complete of all. This is seen in the manner of building the wall as well as in the material used. The Mound-builder used the flat stone which abounded in the region; his skill was exercised in making a square chamber out of stone laid up in a dry wall. The Cliff-dweller also c s nrc C2I ] Mg. 11 — Regular Masonry — Cliff-dweller's House. used ftat stone, such as was found in the vicinity; the layers m this wall varied according to the size of the stone; his skill was exercised in erecting so many square buildings on such ledges as were found in the cliffs, and in adapting the size and shape of the building to the surroundings. The Pueblo used ditlerent material; adobe, limestone, anything that was convenient, but his skill consisted in erecting walls which were thick and massive, so as to sustain heavy, many-storied build- ings. The Peruvian also used such material as was presented. 291 His skill is shown in erecting finished buildint^s, buildings which contain doors and windows, and the various elements of archi- tecture which a re found in modern structures. The Central American excelled them all; he used rough, dressed stone for the lower part, but carved, wu'ought stone with cornices and entablatures and occasionally columns for the upper part. There are no very large stones in any of these buildings. The only structure in which large stones were used is the one in the cut which represents the wall in the southwest part of Colorado, Fig. 12.- and this was probably more a matter of convenience than a matter of skill. Tht masonry of America is in this respect in strong contrast with that of the Oriental countries, especially that of Egvpt, the peculiarity of which was that such massive blocks were used. We call attention to the temple at Carnac and to the tomb in the pyramid at Gizeh. In these the stones are all massive blocks, which must have required great strength to put in place. In the ancient wall in the temple at Jerusalem the stones are also large and heavy, and have a beveled form of dressing. No such walls as these are found in America. The skill of the American races did not consist in lifting great weights nor in building walls with massive and beveled stones. See Fig. 15. Still that there was skill exhibited in the walls in America is evident from various specimens presented, especially in Central America, Here the wall is highly ornamented, great skill hav- ing been exercised in sculpturing figures upon the face of the wall. 292 2. This brings us to the finish and ornamentation of the wall. In this there are some remarkable resemblances between Fig. 13— House on Island of Titicaca. the architecture of the New and the Old World. We first refer to one peculiarity which has impressed many writers on archi- Fig, 1', — Goiernofs House at Uxnial. tecture — the imitation of wood-work which is found in the stone structures. This was first noticed by Fergusson in Assyria. It, 293 however, may be seen in Egypt and is very common in America. We give cuts to illustrate the point. One of these represents an Egyptian tomb, the stone sarcophagus of Mj'cerinus. See Fig. i6. On the front of it may be seen the imitation of wooden frame-work, as well as wooden cornice, the whole surface being covered by projecting columns, beams, with panels and door- ways between them. This peculiarity has been noticed in America. The facades of the palaces are frequently ornamented in this wav. A specimen mav be found in the facade of the Fi(j. 1j — M'all in Temple at Jerusalem. Casa de IMonjas at Uxmal, where the upper part of the wall is covered with lattice-work in stone — a close imitation of wooden lattice-work. See Fig. 17. Another pait of the same building is ornamented with lattice-work, on which are ei"ht parallel, horizontal figures, resembling wooden bars, each termi- nating at either end in serpent's heads with open jaws, the bars increasing in length as they approach the upper cornice. Violet le Due imagines this to have been an imitation of a primitive style of wood-work. Figs. 19 and 34 The same peculiarity will be noticed in the cornice ; in this there are ornaments which resem- ble small blocks of wood, and others resembling rosettes. We call attention to this peculiarity of the walls, for it illustrates a point. The prmiitivc ideas were retained in America even when 294 the architecture reached a high stage. The same features which in Oriental countries were dismissed and disappeared, survived throughout all stages of development. We think that any one who looks at the ornamented walls and takes the pains to trace l-'iy. 10 — Jujypliaii Tomb. the many and elaborate patterns found upon them will see much skill in execution. Some of the patterns are so elaborate as to almost defy analysis. They would be very difficult if they were carved in wood, but here they are wrought in stone and are ob- jects worthy of admiration. These ornaments, however, are not as simple as they at first appear. They contain not only the im- itations of wood-work, but many elaborate and highly finished «• iHiruiiiiininiiuiiimiuuHtioiiiuiiiiim>j inmmitimimmi^mmmSfgmBmmmm ilililnmiirlMiiiihiii'i'iiiliimliniiSiiililiilllliiiil'liliilllliili I Fig. 17 — Imilatiou of Lattice Work and lioinun Key, at Cusa de Monjas. conventional patterns as well as symbolic figures, three qualities combined in one. In this the American architecture is peculiar. The rock-cut tomb of Beni-PIassan contains imitations of wooden beams and cornice, and some of the Assyrian palaces contain imitations of lattice-work; but the American facades contain 295 symbolic figures, which make them representatives of a native mythology, the face of the divinity frequently peering out from among the elaborate ornamentations found here. We find also some strange resemblances to Old World patterns; specimens of the so-called Roman key or Greek fret, occasionally specimens Fig. IS— Elephant's Trunk and Eye and Ear Ornaments at Mitla. of the cross and the "suastika," but along with these the so- called elephant's trunk and eye ornaments, which remind us of the Chinese way of decorating their pavilions, a wonderful mingling of familiar figures with those which are outre and un- familiar. See Fig. i8. They are suggestive of a barbaric splendor which was equal to that reached by many of the monarchies of the Old World ; yet it was a splendor that was peculiar to Fig. 19— Bars with Serpent Heads— Casa de Monjas. America. W^e can hardly compare the two, though we may fix the stage which was reached by American ornamentation. 3. The cornice. It appears that the cornice was a prominent element in the temples and palaces of America, and was some- times even placed upon the pyramids. The cornice was, how- 296 over, peculiar to the civilized races; it is never found among the uncivilized races. The nearest approach to it is found in the projecting beams which support the floor ot the terraces of the pueblo houses. The history of the cornice in America has never been written; we find it at an advanced stage. It appears in stone-work and yet contains imitation ot wood-work. One of the earliest specimens of the cornice in the Old World is found in the temple cella at Amrith in Phoenicia. It is a plain bevel on the edge ot a monolith which forms the ceiling of the cella without finish or ornamentation. The cornices in America Fig, 20— Pyramid of Xochicalco. are very much in advance of this. We give a specimen in the cut. It represents the pyramid of Xochicalco. See Fig. 20. We may notice that there was a double cornice passing around this building, and that what corresponds to the frieze has panels in it divided b}" the folds of a serpent, but filled with mythologic figures. It vvill be noticed that the shape of the building is pyramidal and resembles many of the structures in this respect. The whole wall on the front and end of the building is carved so as to represent monsters of various kinds; the carving pass- ing over the joints of the stone, showing that it was done after the building was erected. This is a remarkable specimen of symbolic ornamentation, for the cornice itself contains symbo s. 4. The subject of windows comes up in connection with the study of walls. The use of windows was not common in America and yet there are a few buildings in which windows appear. We call 297 attention to the resemblance of the American and Assyrian architecture in this respect. It is said that the earl}^ Assyrian palaces had no windows, for the light was introduced through the doors. The same is true of the palaces of Central America. The doorways always opened upon the court, and therefore did not need protection. A curtain would shut ct^' the view from the outside and the inmates could perform their duties in all the privacy that they desired. The palaces were provided with corridors on the outside — corridors which were alwa3's cool and protected the people from the ra3-s of the sun. Figs. 21, 25. Fig. 21 — Doors used as WincJoirs. The manner of constructing windows and of licrhting the rooms should be noticed in this connection. It is remarkable that the window was one of the late inventions. It does not ap- pear in Oriental countries until quite late in historv. It does not appear in America until we reach the fourth or fifth stage in the line of architecture, but even here it is doubtful whether the window was not a door There are openings in the clifl dwellings which remind us of the windows of modern houses. We give a specimen ol one of them. See Fig. 22 It will be noticed that this is rudely constructed. There is no jamb, no casing, and no sill. The window cap is a mere rude block of stone, which is placed across the top of the walls and forms a lintel. It looks like a window, but the building in which it appeared had no other opening, and we conclude that it was a door. The same is true of the openings between the walls of the pueblo houses; they resemble windows, but the}' are doors. The only ancient building in America which has genuine windows in it is the Fig. two-story building on the island of Titicaca; this, however, mav have been erected after the time of the discovery, the original shape of the doorways being pre- served, and the windows being added as a borrowed feature. III. We now come to the architectural principles, and take up the various specimens of them, such as the pier and lintel, arch, column, etc., especially as these are found in America. I. The pier and lintel will first come up for study. These are among the earliest of architectural devices. They are not peculiar to civilization, but appeared long before; yet there is a 298 development, especially of the ornamental pier and lintel, which only occurs among civilized people. This is a proof that the American races reached a hi(;h degree of civilization. The pier and lintel always have a history. The doorwa3's of the Assyrian palaces were generally constructed with heavy piers, which were surmounted by a single stone for a lintel. They were colmens on an advanced scale; the only specimens of which belonged to the prehistoric age. The history ot the pier and lintel has, however, been traced up to advanced points in America. We begin with the Peruvians. There are cer- tain edifices which have doorways which resemble those found in the early Etruscan temples. We give a specimen of one of these. See Fig. 13. It will be noticed the jambs of the door- ways as well as of the windows are on an incline, and in this respect resemble the doorwa3-s of the Egyptians as well as of the Etruscans. We call attention to the tact that the build- ing is two-story and has a massive and solid look, which is rarely found in American structures. There is also a gateway in Peru which il- lustrates the same point. See Fig. 23. This gateway has its jambs in- Fig.23-GatervayinTiahuanaco. ^jj^^^ inward at the top, but it will be noticed that the wall above the gateway is elaborately ornamented. The peculiar feature of it is that the whole was cut out of a solid mass of stone. It is now broken and does not show as much grandeur as it once did. The gateways of Egypt are celebrated for their grandeur. There is a propylon at Carnac which illustrates this. It would seem as if the skill of architecture had expended itself upon it. If we compare the Peruvian with the Egyptian we find it greatly inferior. Per- haps this will lead us to fix the Peruvian architecture at com- paratively a low stage. Still the pier and lintel in America were, in some respects, superior to those found in Oriental countries, especially in ornamentation. The piers in the temples at Uxmal are orna- mented in a very elaborate way. They contain figures of priests and various symbols which are significant. These may be compared to the human-headed bulls which guarded the door- ways to the palace at Nineveh. Were we to compare the orna- mentation we should say that the piers and doorways in American 299 palaces and temples were quite equal to the Assyrian. The same is true of the lintels. Stephens found lintels of carved wood which called forth his admiration so much that he actually re- moved one specimen and transported it to New York. 2. We turn to the arch and shall compare it with those found in the ancient structures of the East. (i.) We are to study the history of the arch. It appears that the arch is found in America as it is found in the East, but the principle of the arch was here unknown. It is therefore only in the early stages of its development that we find the resemblances. One specimen consists of massive stones laid up at an angle, the upper ends resting upon each other. This is perhaps the earli- est form of the arch. We give a cut to illustrate it. It repre- sents the great pyra- mid of Gizeh. Plate I. An arch constructed upon the same princi- ple is found in the portal of Delos. No such arch has been found in America. Next to this is the arch which was made by masonry with stones laid in the shape of a vault, cut so as to make the ceiling hem- ispherical A speci- c ..I,' • rt^ J Fig. 2U— Tomb of the Third Pyramid. men of this is found in the tomb of the third pyramid. See Fig. 24. The third form of the arch is one that was common in Chaldea. It was formed by masonry, each layer jutting over the other. It is said that the tomb of Mugheir has an arch of this kind. It is a false arch; the layers of brick being placed over one another and projecting out so as to form an arched ceiling. This chamber shows that the principle of the arch was not known in the ancient Chaldean period. The same is probably true of the ancient architecture of America. There are many false arches resembling this of the earlv Chaldeans, but no true arch, \-et the arch was used more elTectively in America than in Chaldea. The arch served an important purpose in the palaces as well as in the pyramids. It not only entered into the foundation, serv- TLATE I-PYHAMID OF GIZEH. 301 ing as a support for the stairways and for the steps of the terraces, but it also was an important element in the superstruc- ture. The corridors were all^made up of arches. The chambers and corridors were narrow, to render it possible to cover them without the introduction of immediate supports. In this respect the palaces of Palenque and Uxmal re- sembled the palaces of Nim- rud and Corsabad. Reber speaks of the narrowness of these halls and corridor-like "A Fi(j. -20 — OroHs-sccUon o/ Corridors at Uxmal. spaces. They were the result of a constructive necessity greater width than that permitted by the arch or bv the span of ceiling-timbers was only to be obtained by ' — • the erection of a division-wall to prove a subsidiary support for the beams. So help- less a make-shift, destroying the unit}- and grandeur of the hall, could have been adopted only in entire ignorance of the opening and supporting element of the column, apparent- ly never recognized in Assyria."" The arch was not merel}^ an architectural device de- signed to support the massive walls and ^'o- M-'in/ou Arch. roofs of the chambers and corridors within the buildings, but it was also used as an orna- ment. We give cuts to illus- trate the points. One of them is a cross-section of the corridors at Uxmal. It shows how useful was the arch in this building. See Fig. 25. Another gives the • '4I?| r I shape of the openings into the I ('_' corridors and shows the archi- tectural device which made the arch an ornament as well as a support. It is a trefoil arch, re- minding us of some of the orna- mental arches which appeared in Europe during the Middle Ages. See Fig. 26. These all show how the false Fig. 27 — False Arclij'roia South America. arch was constructed. It will be noticed that the stones project over one another and that they are beveled out so as, to make *See History of Ancient Art, by Reber, p. 69. 302 a false arch in the form of a vault, but without the principle. These are the arches found in buildings. There are, however, arched gateways in Peru which are as impressive archi- tective feats as are these vaulted ceilings and corridors found in the palaces. See Fig. 27. It would seem that gateways were used in all countries as signs of magnificence, and there- fore great efforts were used to make them imposing. The fol- lowing cuts represent gateways, one at Kabah and one at Labna. They remind us of sonie of the arched gateways ot the Roman empire. They are very interesting specimens of aboriginal Fig. 2S—Arch at Kabah. architecture. See Figs. 28 and 29. In some respects they sur- pass the gateways of the Assyrian palaces, for there were no arches in them. There was a great eflbrt on the part of the civilized races to reach the grandeur which the arch can give to structures made from stone, and they succeeded in many cases. It will be remembered, however, that the principle of tne arch was lacking in all these specimens. The support does not come from the keystone, but only from the strength of the masonry. 3. We next come to the column. The column was used in America during prehistoric times, but was only used by the so- called civilized races. In this respect the column and the arch are to be classed together; both of them are factors which be- long to an advanced stage of art and architecture and are signs ot" civilization. The column, however, is a better index of the degree of civilization than the arch. At least we may learn Irom it the stage which had been reached by art and architec- ture, and by parity of reasoning, we may conclude that other thincrs were similar to it. In America the column is a better in- dex than in Oriental countries. In the latter countries it is an in- dex, but its form is so varied and its histor\' so prolonged that it lacks definiteness; while in America its history is limited and it has more definiteness of form. We learn from it the exact posi- tion of t)t<-' nrri-iitectnrp of America in the loner m;inh ot ihe Ftg. i'J — Roiiiati Key, Clualered Columns, Banded Cornice and False Arch ul Lubnx ages, and we may decide whether it has been over estimated or not. The history of the column in Oriental coutiiiies is, however, to be reviewed if we are to understand the subject. We first take its history as it appeared in Egypt. Here we have a complete line of development and a series which shows the different stages which were reached. The earliest speci- men of the column is that found in the tomb of Beni-Hassan. It is a sixteen-sided column and has a plain capital and pedestal and is used for the support of the lintel of the doorway, and of the roof of the chamber. It is called the Proto-Doric, but it originated from the duplication of the sides and angles of the square pier; the pier transformed first into an eight-sided and afterward into a sixteen-sided shaft. Both forms of the column are found in this tomb; they are suppo-^ed to belong to the tweltth dynasty— a dynasty which followed the fit'th, in which 304 the pyramids were built, but with a considerable interval be- tween. This was the earliest stage of the column found in the historic countries. See Fi^r. 30. There were other kinds of the column which followed this, one of them being character- ized bv the decoration of the capital in the imitation of the bud ol the lotus. This appeared under the reign ot Rameses II. and may be seen in the great temple at Karnak. A third type was that which appeared under the reign of the Ptolemies. This consisted in the broadening out of the column into the shape of the calyx or flower of the lotus, the sides of the capital being painted so as to represent the petals of the lotus. Following thi*^ was the transformation of the shaft, the column being dec- Fkj. JO— Tomb 0/ Beni-HaHSun. orated with paintings and covered with hieroglyphics. This constituted the fourth stage. The fifth kind w^as reached when the column lost its shape as a shaft and became a caryatid, the human form elaborately sculptured, being made to serve as a column. Here then we have the five stages of growth in Egypt. We give cuts to illustrate this. First is the tomb of Beni-Has- san, of the twelfth dynasty; second, the ruins of Seti at Abydos, son of Rameses I., \vho 'belonged to the eighteenth dynasty. The third is the temple at Quarnah, built by Rameses II., of the nineteenth dvnasty. The fourth is the Memnonium of Rameses II., of the twenty-fifth dynasty, at Thebes. This building contains carytids which represent the fifth stage of development. See Figs. 30, 31, 32, 33. These represent the progress of the column from the earhest_ stages UD to its complete development. We also give a view ot 305 the ruins at Karnak, which contain in themselves a complete history of the column. In this cut we find not only the pier and lintel, but the simple column with a plain capital. We have also in it the column with the lotus-headed capital, though it lacks the ornamentation and hieroolyphics. The obelisk, how- ever, makes up for this. The obelisk was of a late growth and hardly belongs to the same class as the column and yet it is in- structive as it illustrates one line of development ane one use or office to which the column was subjected. See Plate II. We also take up the history ot the column in Assyria. Here the earliest stages are involved in obscurilv, and yet enough is Fig. 31— Ruins of Sett. known of it to fix upon the different forms. The temple of Mugheir gives to us the earliest stage. See Fig. i. In this the column is but a simple projecting buttress with an entablature. Next to this is the column which stood between the piers and formed the openings to the windows. Here it served only as an ornament, not as a support. Next to this is the column as it appeared in the northern palace of Coyundjic in which the capi- tal is decorated. There are two columns between two pilasters, which support the entablature and the roof. The development of the column after this is rapid. It does not, however, serve very much as a support until the Persian empire is introduced. Persian columns with bull capitals are numerous. The columns ot Assyria were employed in a subordinate position, and were used only as ornaments, reliefs, and not as supports. The As- 306 Syrian palaces were on this account unable to fulfil the demands of a monumental architecture. "The fundamental principles of vaulted construction, as of columnar architecture, were known in Assyria, but neither the column nor the arch was worthily Fig. $2— Temple at Quarnah. recojrnized and developed into an important feature, capable of exercising an influence upon the extent or form of the enclosed spaces."* The question now arises about the column in America. What was its position in the architecture of the New World? Did it J-'iy. -The Memnonium. belong to the early or later stages? In answering this question we shall first refer to the form, (i.) We notice that it is a simple shaft and lacks the capital and pedestal. If it has the capital at all it is a plain block, without ornamentation and dec- *See History of Ancient Art, by Reber, p. 71. 307 oration. There are columns which have bands about the cen- ter, some of the bands being somewhat elaborate. Fig. 34. We should say. in reference to the form, that it belongs lo an primitive stage and might naturally be classed with the early Doric or Proto-Ionic. (2.) As to "the office of the column we find that it rarely serves as a support, though sometimes it is placed as a division to the doorway. In this respect it resembles the Persian columns in Assyria, the use of which was mainly to make divisions in the windows or supports for the window- caps. The column rarely served in America as a support, though there are a few exxeptions. (3). The use of the column as Fig. 3!t— Column from Pulenque. an ornament is very common. There are at Palenque facades on which the columns appear in connection with the imitation of lattice- work between the double cornices and make panels on the frieze. In the panels there are ornaments in imitation of the huts or common houses of the people, surmounted by the emblems of divinity, with the image of divinity in the doors. These columns are, some of them, flat and some round; the round are finished with bands in the center and are arranged in triples. They are not used for support, but for ornament. There are, however, other buildings in which the column is dif- ferently used. Bancroft has mentioned the various localities where they appear. Among these may be mentioned the row of round columns on the terrace of the Governor's House at Uxmal, sixteen columns at Xul from the ruins of Xochacab, 308 thirty-six square columns on the summit platform of the pyra- mid at Ake, three hundred and eighty short pillars, also square, arranged round a square at Chichen-Itza, eight round pillars on the terrace of the round house at Mayapan, the reported line of square columns originally supporting a gallery at Merida, and finally the monoliths of Sijoh.* Columns appear also as orna- ments at Casa Grande, at Zayi, also in the building and gate- way at Labna See Fig. 23. The column ordinarily is nothing more than an ornament, and cannot be regarded as even reaching the position of an archi- tectural principle. It introduces a style, but does not introduce an order. There is a whole realm of architectural development bej'ond it. Still, we may say that the column occupied the same position in the architecture of preiiistoric America as in ancient historic countries. 4. The decorations which are occasionally seen upon the column are instructive. There are columns in America which are elaborately decorated. The columns of Egypt, which were erected in the eighteenth dynast}^ are not more or- namented than these. To illustrate: In the palace at Chichen- Itza there is a massive shaft which is surmounted by a heavy block placed under the massive roof, which projects from the palace. On this column are inscribed the head and body of a serpent, the very scales of the serpent forming an elaborate or- namentation. Certainly no such shaft as this would have been erected unless the builders had passed beyond the primitive stages. Tfie column fills its legitimate office, it supports a heavy roof. It is highly ornamental, suggestive of a high grade of art. It also has a capital similar to that of the Proto- Doric, the three elements in one — support, form, ornamentation, resem- bling the columns of the Old World when in an advanced stage. Such columns did not appear in Assyria until the reign of Esarhaddon. Such columns did not appear in Egypt till the reign of Rameses II. We may say then that the architecture of the civilized races in America was equal in many of its quali- ties to that of the civilized races of Assyia, Egypt and Phoenicia; that it was similar to that which appeared in the middle period of the ancient dynasties, and that it indicated a civilization which was remarkable in such an isolated region and among people who had been for so long unknown. The column is, then, by its very appearance in America, an indication that architecture had passed beyond the primitive stages, and that a very considerable degree of civilization had been reached. *See Bancroft's Native Races of the Pacific States, Vol. IV., pp. 214, 217, 275. CHAPTER XV. ANCIENT TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE. We have new passed in review the different structures which appeared in pre-historic times and continued into the historic, and have found that each one of them originated in a very primitive form, but came up through different stages until a high degree of perfection was reached. This has proved to be true of such common objects as the bridges, boats, and other mechanical contrivances, but especiall}' true of the houses, forts, palaces, and all other forms of architecture, whether represent- ing naval, military, domestic, funeral or sacred. There is, how- ever, one class of structures into which other elements besides the ordinary mechanical and architectural principles have en- tered, namely, the Temples: for in these the religious senti- ment has proved a very important factor, and has had as much to do with their growth as even the architectural or mechanical principles. VVe shall, therefore, take for the subject of the present chapter, The Early or Ancient Temples of the World, and seek to find out their origin and to trace the lines of their development and see what causes have been at work to bring them into such a variety as they have presented. In doing so, we shall assume that there were, at the beginning, certain primordial forms from which all architecture started, and that these forms continued to impress themselves upon the temple architecture when it arose, so that we have even now different kinds of temples which maybe classified according to the type after which they were patterned. They maybe classed as fol- lows: 1. Temples in Caves. 2. Open Air Temples. 3. Temples in the form of a tent. 4. Temples in the form of a round hut. 5. The Temple in the form of a square tower called a teocalli. 6. The Temple or Shrine situated upon the summit of a pyramid. 7. The Temple in the form of a house but built in the columnar style. I. In reference to the cave temple, it will be understood that this was different from the ordinary cave dwelling, and yet was the outgrowth of the habit or custom of living in caves. There are caves in the West Indies which were used as shrines for their divinities or idols. These caves contained many religious symbols, wrought into etchings and grotes- que images or idols. It is a belief among the Antilles that all the human race emerged from, the same cave, but after their advent upon the earth's surface they assumed the forms of various animals. Idols were discovered by Columbus. These were called Zemes. They are supernatural beings em- bodied in images of stone. They are supposed to be repre- sentatives of the "Clan Ancients," each individual Zeme repre- senting a supernatural divinity. 3IO It is well known that the oracles and temples of Greece and other ancient countries were either in caves or remote moun- tain recesses. The temples of Pan, Bicchus. and Pluto were in cave^, as well as the oracles at Delphi, Corinth, and Mount Cithicron. In Persian mythology caves were the places where the rites of mithras were observed. In Europe there were caves about which myths have gathered, such as the Fairy Dragons or Devil's Cave and Dwarf Holes. Caves were also used for burial places, and so became shrines and sacred places. Tne cave of Macpelah is well kiowa as the ba- r.ilp'.a:eof th i nojsehold of Abraham. [n America, caves were used as the homes of the people, and be :ame sacred places. Among the Ctiff-D Ateliers, there werevvhole villages built into the shelter caves, but the most prominent building in them was the so-called Kiva. This pre- sented the shape of a primitive hut, built in circular shape with the walls divided into ledges and piers, which are supposed to represent the posts and walls of the primitive hut, and at the same time, symbolize the pillars of the sky, the conical roof symbolizing the dome of the sky, and the hole in the floor symb jlizing the place of emergence through which the ances- tors came fro n their primitive home. The Pueblos built their kivas under the ground, and reached them by ladders, bit made them represent both the cave and the hut. In Mexico, and Central America, there were underground caves wnich were used for the sacred ceremonies that were performed. Dr. Brinton has described the nagualism or witch- craft which found lodgement in caves, and which remin Js us of the witchcraft that was practiced in the time of Solomon by the witch of Endor, whose home was in a cave. The cave became so sacred that labvrinths w:re construct- ed to imitate them. The labyrinth of Egypt is well known. It consisted of many chambers, the most of them below the ground, the subterranean rooms being sacred places. A laby- rinth has been recently discovered in Crete. The most mag- nificent works of art were contained in it, and some fine speci- mens of architecture, thus carrying back the date of civilization in Crete to a marvelous antiquity- The labyrinth called '"Lost and Lost," (Tzatum Tsat.) in Nicaragua, was also a sacred place which imitated the cave. The following is a description of it by Mr. H. C. Mercer: ''Tne whole wa5 cov;red by aa artificial rmund of stones, oblong in shap;, 353 feet in circumference, and 3[ feet high. Within, there are three tieri ot flat stones, and the stair ci^e leads from the innerraoit pas- sage of the lower story to the upper story." The cave of Loltun, near Palenque,has also been described by Mr. Mercer: "A ij-eatntndi, 325 fe:t Iii^. 290 f-;itin liam^ter. lei to a c'ltiibj under the sky light. The rocks were covered with symbols and picturesr •of a mysterious character. The question arose "had the rocks seen the 3'i diabolic rites of Nagaalism?" or had men ventured to live here day and •nignt, burying their dead here, and wandering into the unknown ?'' It is to be noticed that the rock cut temples of India, were shrines as well as temples, but they presented, on the outside, carvings which represented the earliest columns, beams, posts, doorways, rafters of the earliest temples constructed of wood, and, at the same time, the statues of the Divinites were pre- served in the shrines, but all carved out of stone. The ancient Etruscans, built their temples partly beneath the surface, but the upper pirt was built in the form of a house, with arched roof and pillars in front, and a ledge which form- ed a seat around the sides. Tne tomb of Cyrus was in the form of a house, but the front was open, thus making it into a shrme. The tombs in the vallev of the Kedron opposite Jeru- salem, were grottoes cut out of the rock, but resembled houses or temples on a small scale. The tomb of Absalom, is a good specimen of this. It is ornamented with Ionic pilasters, sur- mounted by a circular cone of masonry which terminates in a tuft of palm leaves. It was in connection with the cave temple that the earliest forms of architecture appeared. The column, in its different stages of growth, is shown by the cave at Beni Hassen, in Egv'.t, and the facade, or, portals, with the acco npanying statues, as shown in the rock cut temple at Abou Simbel. Within this tomb, or grotto, are seen two groups of statues, and, upon the roof, may be seen the winged circle. The tomb of Mugheir, on the other hand, presents one of the earliest forms of the arch, though it is made by horizontal projections of the bricks and without the key-stones, and thus resembles the arch as i^ is found in America. There is a relief from Korsabad which represents a temple with its interior open to view, and on either side may be seen the castle with battlements; also, the rock cut tomb of D irius. represents a palace with columns and cornice and doorway all in the Persian style. II. Open air temples are to be treated next. These were constructed in different ways and had a great variety of forms. Among these forms the following may be mentioned; i. The Monoliths or Obelisks. 2. The Circle of Standing Stones, which are so common throughout the far east and the various parts of Europe. 3. The high places which are so numerous in various pirts of Syria, Arabia, and the land of the Hittites, 4. The various altars which were common in the same region but were disconnected from temples and yet were sacred places. 5. The altars which are connected with sculptured statues and idol pillars generally called Stelae which were common both in Babylonia and other parts of Asia and in Central America. 6. The sacred groves common in India, Greece and Great Britain. 7. The slab circle with the altar enclosed 'found at Mycen.ne. Open air Temples were very ancient, and, perhaps, follow- 312 ed the caves in the order of time. These, for the most part, were in the form of circles, sometimes consisting of earthworks with openings for the processions which might enter them, but generally were made of monoliths, which were erected either in the form of a circle or an ellipse or a horseshoe. Monoliths were common throughout the East. The majority of them were erected to commemorate some noted event, illustr-tions of which are found in the scriptures, for Jacob erected a pillar which should be a sign of his \ow as well as a reminder of his vision. The obelisks of Egypt, may be called monoliths rath- er than temples, for they are commemorative monuments, and contain the records of various kings. The obelisk at Nimrud* is also a monument, as it was designed to commemorate the victory of the king over his enemies. Obelisks were frequently placed near temples, and so may well be considered in connection with temple architec- ture. Two rock cut obelisks at Mazzebah, near Petra, with a round an-d square altar, and a rock cut court ha\e been discov- ered. These obe- lisks probably grew out of stand- ing stones; or a modification o f them, and suggest the thought that the standing stones and align- ments, in the north of France, were connected with some form of worship, marking out the avenues through which the processions might be led to the tombs, as elsewhere, in Great Britain, they led to open air temples. That standing stones and obelisks were connected with open air temples, will be seen as we proceed, for they are found not only at Stone-henge and Avebury, but also in Peru, and many other parts of the world. There were isolated col- umns forming the circles around the ancient tombs in India, and many other parts of the East. As to the question whether there were open air temples in America, it would seem that there were, for nearly all of the religious ceremonies of the aborigines were in the open air. The people of the Great Plateau timed their ceremonies by the position of the sun by day and the Pleiades by night, the study of the heavens being as close with them as among the OBELISK IN MOAB- See chapter ou kock Cut Temples. 313 peoples of the East, and the dependence upon the powers of the air was as greit anong them as the dependence upon the risinof of the waters was among the people dwelling upon the Euphrates or the Nile. Thecircle, or round temple, seems to have been at one time the place where laws were enacted. In Ireland the Moot Hills are usually on the margin of a river, in the immediate vicinity of a religious edifice, forming an interesting object in the landscape. Sir James Logan says: " In Scotlan 1, thi Highlan iers were accustomed to assemble and elect chi ifs, tlii ol lis hivin? tae r sp^'cial place in the circle. Clanship involves opin air assemblies b)tnf)rthi military and religious purposes. When the Highlan 1 chief entered on his government, he was placed on the top of a cairn, and iround him stood his friends and followers. The practice of crowning a king upon a stone is of extreme antiquity and survives to the present day in England. The practice of holding courts in the open air was common The court of Areopa^^us, at Athens, sat in the open air. The same prictice was common amjn^ the Druids, but on the abolition of Druidism the courts which were held in the circles, were transferred to the chnrch. The sacrifice of captives was considered, in some cases, as nece»- sarv for propitiating the deity."* The question arises, in reference to the con- nection of the standing stones with the circles, and the object of the circles. There are many reasons for believin^j that the larger circles OPEN AIK TEMPLE AT AVEBURY. Avere designed for tem- ples. Among these are the following: I. Many of the circles contain within thein dolmens, which were used both for burial places and for altars, suggesting that human sacri- fices may have been practiced. 2. The fact that there are ring marks and cups upon some of the dolmens, suggests the idea that blood was poured out and was preserved in the cups. 3. Circles formed of standing stones are frequently isolated from the surrounding country by small bodies of water, or upon hill tops. 4. The fact that earthwalls surrounded the stone cir- cles and that avenues led to the interior suggests that they were used for religious ceremonies and processions. 5. The svmbolism contained in the stone circles suggests that the en- closures were sacred to the sun and the circles were symbols The circle of standing stones at Avebury shows probably an open air temple. The cut so represeuts it, for Druid priests are seen in it, loitering about the walls and treading the enclosed ditch. •See Scottish Gael or Celtics Manner, by James Logan, 1843 314 of the solar cult. 6. The standing stones or menhirs, were often placed in such a position as to throw a shadow into the circle. This confirms the idea still further, and makes it prob- able that there were solstitial ceremonies obserxed in these cir- cles resembling those in the ancient temples farther East in Egypt, Assyria, India, and in America. 7. The color, and char- acter of the stones, especially those of Stone-henge, are very significant, and show that symbolism extended even to the material as well as to the arrangement of the stones. This generalizing does not prove that all circles were open air temples, nor does it prove that there was any connection between the open air temples and other temples which appeared in other parts of the world, and yet this as well as the fact that temples and tombs were always closely associated, and that the sk\' and earth were regarded as the different parts of the Great Tem- ple, renders it pro- bable that the cir- cles were not only symbols, but were sanctuaries in which the solar di- vinities were wor- shiped. There were open air temples in America. The one represented in the cut is in Peru. It was devoted to sun worship. It symbolized the sun, as the stone pavement was laid in diagonal lines, the temenos was marked by a circle of standing stones, while two standing stones in the center showed the exact time of the equinoxes, as they cast no shad- ow when the sun was at the equinox. The best specimens of open air temples are those of Stone-henge and Avebury in Great Britain. These have al- ready been desciibed, but as there are certain features which have been omitted, we shall again refer to them, drawing es- pecially from the English authors. The following is Barclay's description of Stone-henge: "It is enclosed by a low circular embankment outside a ditch, named the 'Earth Circle,' To the northeast is the ancient avenue where are the two outlying stones; The ' Friars Heel ' that bows toward the temple, and the 'Slaughter Stone ' that lies flat with the ground between the Sun stone and the temple. The design consists of an outer circle of thirty uprij^hts OPEN AIR TEMPLE IN PEKU. •The color of the stones, white^and blue, reminds us of the symbolism of colorwhich was common among the American aborigines. 315 supporting^ twenty-eight transverse lintels; within this circle, a smaller cir - cle of uprights These circles contain two horseshoe figures, one within the other. The outer horseshoe, is composed of five groups, consisting of two piers, and a superimposed block. The inner horseshoe, is composed of small uprights. Both horseshoes had iheir openings tcwird the Sun stcne. The outer lintel circle and outer hcrseihoe are composed of Sarsen stores brought ficm near Avebuiy; the inntr circle and inner horseshoe are com- posed of blue itones of igntous rock brought from a distance. The analogues of Stone-henge, were fotnd by Palgrave in Central Arabia, by Barth near Tripoli, in Africa, consisting of triliths and stcne circles, a sort of sun dial, combining the vertical and hoiizcntal principle. The flat stone was intended to carrv off the blotd ol the victim. Stone-henge consists of different kinds of stone, but was piobablv erected at one time, and has a unity of design in the measurement of differ- ent parts. Parts of the chippings of the stcne, are found in the barrows. Thecursuswas an appendage of the temple and was construoted at the same time. The triliths distinguish Stone-henge from other circles. The distance from the Sun stone to the Slaughter stone, is one hundred feet. The plac- ing of the Slaughter stones, the Sun stones, the Stones of the earth circle in regard to the center, the diameter of the Sarsen ciicle, and of the blue stone circle, the distance of the central trililh, the depth ol the horseshoe, and the dimensions of the altar, are all derived Ire m the triangle within the circle. The symbols of Stone-henge. are found in many things; the circle is a symbol of the jun; the crescent or the horseshoe, is the symbol of the moon; the triliths are mystic gateways; the long avenues were designed to be the paths of religious piocetsions; other symbols are found in the color of the stcne, the blue stone and the red stone. We have two forms of worship symbolized at Stone henge; the earth worship and the sun worship. The bond of union in the primitive house- hold was the domestic worship. As the house father made the offerings to the house spirit, the fire, by throwing a share of the food into the fire before eating; in the circular temples was involved the worship of the sun, the visible world father. Men prayed to the sun, the Ruler, and Saviour of the world to give them good harvest and daily bread. From the position of the altar table, in the circle, we perceive that any object placed on it should be at the mid-summer sun-rise, w^^en the sun would cast its shadow on the trilith. As the sun rose the shadow of the lintel circle covered the altar table, but when the portals of the east, the everlasting gates, were thrown wide open and the sun god shone out in the fullness of his glory, then it appealed that he regarded the sacrifices with favor, and wrote upon the wall with his sunbeams the golden rule, his assurance of plenty. Barclay says, further: 'W hen standing within the precincts of this heavy or shaiteie d t( n rie, the speciator is forced to acknowledge that the unl-ncwn cesigrei, has hucceedtdin ccnveyirg a le maikable imple^s:cn ol gi tnci ui s mpiic.ty of design, bold and rugged objects with ro atK mpt at o«nan ent. Tlise recks strike ore witha sense of erdles-s ercuiar.ce ard power while oieer and dignity assert themselves amid this wreck and conlusion," III. The temple, in the form of a Tent, is the most com- mon, and, at the same time, the most interesting. We learn from the Sacred Scriptures, that the Tent was regarded as the heme of the divinity, and, that it was sacred to the Hearth Divinity. This is illustrated in the case of Abraham. When the argel visited him, a sacrifice was made, and the pieces of sacrifice, according to the common custom, were divided, but 3i6 Abraham dreamed that he saw the furniture of his tent, such ^s the smoking furnace and the burning lamp, passing between the pieces, and he took it as a sign that the hearth divinity had accepted the sacrifice, and had even made sacred the com- mon furniture It was perfectly natural that the temple should become a shrine or temple, for the most sacred associations of life were connected with it. The children of Israel, when they passed through the wilderness, are said to have received a command from God, as to the place in which he was to be worshiped. It was in the tabernacle or tent resembling those of the com- mon people, and its furnishings were reminders of those of the home, the table, upon one side, the candle stick upon the other, the laver at one end, and the curtain at the other, the Holy of Holies beyond the curtain, and the ark of the cove- nant within the curtain. Every portion of this tabernacle, reminds us of the Patriarchy which prevailed at the time, and furnishes a picture of the home life of the people, for the tabernacle was gold lined, and yet was in the form of a tent. The table v/ith the sacred loaves upon it, and thegolden candlestick, also represented thecommon furniture of the house; the ark within the Holy Place represent- ed the chest, which contained the treasures of the household; the sacredness of the place also suggesting the privacy of the house, and the authority of the father. So sacred was the house in these days that it was imitated by the tomb, and the tomb became not only the house of the dead, but the place of worship and sacred assemblies. In fact the tomb became a temple, and remained such for many centuries, even among the more civilized people, and into historic times. It is sup- posed by some, that the worship of ancestors which was one of the earliest forms of religion, was perpetuated by this means, but the tomb continued to be a temple or place of worship long after the worship of ancestors ceased. The enquiry has arisen as to the original form of the taber- nacle. Wds it in the form of a tent resembling the other tents in which the Israelites dvvelt or was it in the form of the oblong house with upright walls resembling the Egyptian temple? On this point there is considerable uncertainty. It is known that the Egyptian temple was made up of several parts. In front of it were the propylaae or lofty gateways. Next to this was the Peristyle hall back of this was the Hypostylc hall in the rear of all was the Adytum. The tabernacle had a court in front of it which was entered through a single gateway and was called the Temple Court and was the place of sacrifice. Within the tabernacle proper was the Holy Place which cor- responded to the Hvpostyle Hall, while the Holy of Holies cor- responded to the Adytum of the Egyptian and no one could enter it except the high priest. The Temple of Solomon was modelled partly after the or- 317 iginal tabernacle but contained features which resembled those of the Assyrian and Babylonian rather than the Egyptian tem- ple- Several features, however, seem -to have been borrowed from the Egyptians. First there were two pillars in front of it which resembled the obelisks in front of the temples in Egypt. Second the pillars or columns of Solomon's court were all on the inside making it resemble the Egyptian temple rather than the Greek temple. Third, the tabernacle as well as the temple of Solomon was but a single stor)' in height and in this respect resembled the Egyptian rather than the Babylonian, for the latter was alvvays three stories in height and ultimately reached the seventh story. Each story or terrace was devoted to a separate Stellar divinity, the upper story devoted to the sun. Fourth, the tabernacle as well as the temple was divided i^^^'^M VJ^I SHINTOO TEMPLES AND BUDDHIST TOWERS. into three parts, the court, which was open to the people, the Holy Place which was open only to the priests, the Holy of Holies which was open only to the high priest once a year, and contained the ark and figures of angels; a division which corresponded to the Perist\le, Hypostyle, and Adytum of the Egyptians. Fifth, the form of angels with wings in the Holy of Holies corresponded to the winged figures of the Babylon- ians, though the Babylonian figures had six wings. There was a difference, however, between the winged figures of the taber- nacle and those in the temple for in the tabernacle the winged figures were kneeling and both wings were thrown forward, but in the temple the winged figures were standing and the wings stretched out to either side, reaching the walls on one side -and meeting one another over the ark on the other side and so 3i8 over shadowing the ark. Sixth, the names of the temples of the different nations are significant. In Babylonia the temple is called Mountain House or the Lofty House. In Egypt it is called the Great House or the King's House, and is equivalent to the palace. In Jerusalem it is called the House of Vahveh or God's Dwelling Place and the Holy Place. Seventh, the personal element prevailed in the temple of the jews, but the worship of the sky and heavenly bodies pre- vailed in Babylonia. In Egypt it was the worship of animals, of ancestors, of kings, and of the personified nature powens.the most of them represented under human forms but with animal heads. No such distorted images were ever seen in the Taber- nacle or temple and the only image seen was suggestive of an- gelic creatures and typical of the heavenly scenes. The Hebrew temple had two forms — that of the taberna- cle in the wilderness and Solomon's temple at Jerusalem, each of which was built after a different model and embodied a dif- ferent style. The Babylonians seem to have retained in the tower like form of their temple the reminiscences of their ear- liest home among the mountains, for, notwithstanding the fact that they long lived on the level plains near the mouth of the Tigris, they always built their temple in the form of a lofty tower and called it the Mountain Hou;-e or the House of the Mountain Divinit}'. They, however, changed the significance of the tower and made it symbolize the pillars of che sky, but dedicated it to the planets and the sun, and gave each sto- ry a different color so as to represent the various planets. The shrine upon the summit was consecrated to the sun. There were other nations beside the Hebrews who built their early temples in the shape of tents. Among these the most notable are the Hindoos and Chinese. The Chinese had two kinds, one devoted to the Shintoo faith and the other to Buddhism, but both retained the tent form. See cut. The Buddhist temples have taken the place largely of the Shintoo temples. In them we see a marvellous grouping of buildings with a two- storied gable as chief feature, which resembles a gate. The framing of the lower siory is arranged so as to form niches in which stand the God. The roof is the most artistic feature, having broad, overhanging eaves, fes- tooned in the centre and bent upward and backward at the corners. Budd- hi>t temples, like the Shintoo temples, are composed of buildings groupfd together. Passing through the entrance, the visitor hnds himself in the first terraced court, only to encounter another, and so on to a third and. fourth. After traversing terrace after terrace he reaches the chapel or or- atory. The court yards are usually filled with buildings of the Buddhist- cult, as well as a number of bronze lanterns. Belfreys, priest apartments, pavilions, with cisterns of holy water, and pagodae appear on every side, all crowned with festooned roofs. Among the most imposing of ihese are pagodas which are invariably square. Lx- ternally the pagoda is built in five or seven stories, each set a little back of the other, and girt about with balconies and overhanging eaves. The whole is usually lacquered, and above all, is the spire of bronze which forms the peak. The temple, like the domestic buildings, is provided with a verandah and columns, shaded by a gabled roof, and a bracketed cornice. The floor is covered with silk-bordered mats. The roofs, like festoonued, jewelled 319 mantles, are graceful in curve and sweep. The Japanese never mistake greatness or ostentation for beauty, but they always exhibit rttinement and reserve, which contribute so much to the ideal. The origin of these styles of the Oriental temples came from the tt-n- tlency to make the house resemble the tent, and to cover it with adorn- men's of sculpture, which so easily won their fancy and engaged their skill. In this respect their art and literature were alike.* IV. Another pattern is found in the Chinese tCiDples. These are in the shape of a round hut, with a conical roof, and some- times several roofs. They are probably survivals of the prim- tive house. They are described by Rev. Henry Blodget D.D.: J " The state worship of the early kings of Egypt, Greece Rome, Phoenicia, Assyria, Babylonia, and India, no longer ex- ists in real life. If we study it, we do so from books, and from the monuments of antiquity; but here wc have the ancient wojship of China, preserved in a living form, to the present time. This worship is invested with the deepest interest to students of ethnic religions. The antiquit)- of its ohserxance; the magnificence of its :'tto^ BBH^ ' I "mnWlBi' gi III! I II linll CHINESE TEMPLE. altars; the imposing na- ture of its rites; combine to give this worship a ve- ry conspicuous place in the stud)' of the ancient nations. The dual principle was recognized in China, one called j'lH and the othtr yang, and there were tuu altars in the city of Pekin. The one directed to hea\ - en, which is also yang, is on the south; the altar to earth, which is yi)i, is on the north, but the altar of the isun son the east, and the altar of the mcoi. on the west. Each of these altars, is situated in a large park, planted with rows of lotus, pine and fir trees. The south is the region of light and heat, the jv///^'-, while the north is the region of cold and dark- ness, the 1'///. This perpetuates the myth, which surrounds the altar to heaven, which has the greatest antiquity and import- ance. This altar is built of while marble, and stands under the open sky. The structure is in three concentric circular ter- races, rising one above another, and each surrounded by richly carved marble balustrades. The diameter of the lowest terrace is 210 feet, the middle terrace 150 feet, the uppermost terrace 90 feet. The last is a circular flat surface about i'^ feet above the level of the ground. It is paved with white marble slabs, which are so arranged as to form nine concentric circles around one circular stone in the centre. The altar is round, as representing the circle of heaven. It is built of white •Ovorland Monithly. IJour. of Amer. Oilental Society, 1902. 320 ■marble, rather than of dark, because heaven belongs to light, or the v^fftj^ principle. The ascent to the altar, is by three flights of steps, on the north, the south, the east, the west; each flight having nine steps. Answering in all respects to the altar of heaven, is the altar of earth, on the north side of the city. The grounds of this park are square, and contain about three hun- dred acres. The altar to earth is made of dark colored marble, since the earth belongs to jj7>/, the dark principle. It has two terraces, instead of three. The top of the altar is paved with marble slabs, quadrangular in form, and laid in squares, around a central square, upon which the emperor kneels and worships. Each of these squares, consists of successive multiples of eight instead of nine as in the circles on the altar to heaven It is built upon a square elevation, surrounded by a square wall, while the altar to heaven is built upon a round elevation, and surround- ed by a round wall. The altars to the sun and moon are con- structed on the same general plan, with constantregard to the dual principle, as are the altars of the gods of the land and grain, the spirits of heaven, the spirits of earth, all of which are in the rifi, as all wor- ship is arranged ac- cording to the dual principle, j'l// and y<^fig. The worship of heaven comes at the winter solstice, be- cause then the power of the yi}i, or dark principle, has run its course, and is ex- hausted, and the power of the yang, or light principle, repre- sented by heaven, again begins to assert itself. The days be- gin to lengthen; nature prepares herself once more for the glo- ries of spring and summer. The worship of earth comes at the summer solstice. Then the power of the yang, or light principle, is exhausted, and the power of the yin, or dark principle, represented by earth, be- gins in turn to assert itself. The days begin to grow shorter. This solstitial worship, as it is most ancient, so also is it sacred in the regard of the Chinese. No one but the emperor or one of the highest rank. delegated by him, is allowed to per- form it. Acknowledging its great authority, every one would recognize the fact that, it is invested with a high degree of rev- ersnce and solenmity; the religious feelings are deeply moved in performing its sacrerd rites; that there is a certain elevation of mind, a grandeur and awe, which ttaches to the worship Of CHINESE TE.Ml'LE AND STAIRWAYS. 321 the vast heaven and broad earth, the sum total of all created things, performed, as it is, by the monarch of so many millions of human beings. The worship of heaven and earth, stands at the head of the Chinese pantheon, and is inseparably bound up with the worship of numerous other beings and things. The pantheon of China is large. It includes the \arious parts and powers of nature; the deceased emperors of every dynasty; deceased sages, heroes and warriors; distinguished statesmen; in\entorsof useful arts; in general, an under world made up of all objects of worship in the three great religions of the land. V. In America there were several kinds of temples, one cir- cular in shape, n sembling the round hut, anotlicr in the siiape of a square tower, called a teocalli, and tlie third in the form of a shrine, all placed upon pyramids. To illustrate, there- are round towers in Mexico and Cen- tral America, which are call- e d Caracols. These are con- ical in shape, and have stair- ways in the in- terior, and a conical roof s ur m ou n ting them. They ai e placed upon a conical p y r a - mid, which hris stairways, point ing to the four quarters of the eartii, and are furnished with doorways connecting with the stairways. It is not known from what source this symbolism was derived, but it seems to have been connected with the worship of the nature powers. Temples are to be distinguished from towers. There were temples connected with palaces, as can be seen from examining the plates, which represent the ruins of Palenque, Uxmal,. Chichen-Itsa, Xkichmook; that there were also towers con- nected with the temples, is shown by the accounts written by the various historians. To illustrate: De Solis, in describing^ the conquest of Mexico, speaks of a rising ground that com- manded the whole circumjacent plain, on the top of which, was a towered building which appeared like a fortress. It was a temple dedicated to the sylvan deities or idols of the woods, to which those barbarians dedicated their harvests. The court of the temple was sufficiently capacious, encompassed with a wall, after their manner of building, which, together with the CHINESE PAGODA. 322 towers, by which it was flanked, rendered it tolerably defens- ible.* These towers were generally arranj^ed on the sides of en- closures and, in connection with entrances to the temples, but some of them, were at the foot of tht pyramid on which the temples were placed. De Solis, speaks a2:ain of the towers of the great temples, which could command a pirt of the palace and of others connected with the temple itself. Hesays: "The ascent to the upper gallery to th^; temple, was by a hundred steps upon the pavement, whereof some tolerably large tow- ers were erected. In this they had lodged about five hundred men, chosen out of the Mexican nobili- ty, and were so fully bent upon maintain- ing it, that they had provided themselves with arms, amuni- tion, and all other necessaries for many days." Gomara, speaking of the various towns which were planted in the middle of the lake, says: "They are adorned with many temples, which have many fayre tow- ers that beautify, ex- ceedingl\-, the lake." In speaking of the city of Mexico, and ''"^ the towers which abound in the city, he says: "Upon the causeway are many draw bridges built upon arches that the •water passes through. The strength of e\- ery town is the tem- ple, which is built with a pyramid and stairs, and towers upo^^ the summit. Besides the palaces, which stand upon the pyramid, there are loft)' towers. The great temple occupied the centre of the ciry. The wall about the temple, was built of stone and lime, and very thick, eight feet high, and covered with battlements ornamented with strange figures, in the shape of serpents. It had four gates to the cardinal p jints, correspond - CARACOL AT MAYAPAN. •DeSoIis' History of the Conquest of Mexico. Boak IV. Page7i6. THE CITY OF MEXICO AS REBUII.T BY THE SPANIARDS. jg^ije?5.;s^ ANCIENT TEOCALLl IN THE CITY OF MEXICO. -J O a o 323 in^ to the streets, the broadest and longest of which, led to Iztaclopoca, Tacuba, and Tezcuco. Over each of the gates was an arsenal filled with a vast quantity of weapons. The space within the temple wall was paved with very smooth stones, in the middle was raised an immense solid building of greater length than width. This building consisted of five stages. The lowest was more than fifty perches long, and for- ty-three perches broad; the second and third about a perch less, so that upon each there remained a free space which would allow three or four men to walk abreast, with as man)'' separate stair-cases. The height of the building, without the towers, was eighteen perches, and, with the towers, twenty- eight perches. From the height one might see the lake and the cities around. As to the city of Mexico, it is well known that there were, at the time of the conquest by Cortez, many tem- ples, which were called Teocalli. These were in the form of pyramids which stood in the centre of an enclo- sure, and were sur- rounded by a num- ber of shrines or smaller temples. The following is De Solis' descrip- tion of the Great Temple or Teocalli which is situated in the center of Mexico, and is represented by the plate, but incorrectly: The first part of the building was a great square with a wall of hewn stone; wrought on the outside with the various knots of serpents in- tertwisted, which gave a horror to the portico and were not improperly placed. At a little distance from the principal gate was a place of wor- ship that was terrible. It was built of stone, with thirty steps of the same, which went up to the top, which was a kind of long flat root, and a great many trunks of well grown trees fixed in it in a row, with holes bored in Of the two plates, one represents the temple or Teocalli, described by De Solis, the othtr represents the cathedral, forts and houses erected by the Spaniards after Cortez had destroyed the first city and laid in ruins the various temples which were scatteied through it. The fignies over the gateways of the old temple do not properly represent the originals for these wer« irrought out of solid stone and were covered with hideous serpents' uings and tails and a ghastly skull in the center, the whole presenting a terrifying appearance. SYMBOLIC HUT AND MANITOU FACE. 3>4 them at equal distances and through which from one to another passed several bars run through the heads of men who had been sacrificed. The iour sides of the square had as many gates opening to the four winds. Over each of these gates were four statues of stone which seemed to point the way, as if they were desirous of sending back such as approach- ed with an ill disposition of mind. These were presumed to be threshold gods, bacause they had some reverences paid them at tbe entrance. Close to the inside of the wall were the habitations of the priests, and of those who, under them, attended the services of the temple with soma offices which altojiether took up the whole circumference within, retrenching so much from°that vast square that but eight or ten thousand persons had suf- ficient room to dance in upon their solemn festivals. In the center of this square stood a pile of stones, which in the open air exalted, its lofty head overlooking all the towers of the city; gradually diminishing till it formed a pyramid; three of its sides were smooth; the fourth had stairs wrought in the stone; a sumptuous building and extremely well proportioned. It -was so high that the stair-case contained a hundred and twenty steps, and of so large a compass that on the top it terminated in a flat forty foot square. The pavement was beautifully laid with Jasper stones o( all col- ors. The rails which went round in nature of a balustrade, were of a serpentine form and both sides covered with stones resembling jet, placed in good order and joined with white and red cement, which was a very great ornament to the building. There were other pla(?es where similar temples were situated the remains of which are still standing, Various authors have spoken of the Teocalli of Mexico, Humboldt says: "The construction of the Teocilli recalls the oldest monuments which the history of tbe civilized race reaches. The temple of Jupiter, the pyramids of Meidoum, and the group of Sakkarah in Egypt, were also immense heaps of bricks; the remaining of which have beeli preserved during a period of thirty centuries, down to our day." Bancroft says: "The historical annals of aboriginal times confirm- ed by the Spanish records of the conquest, leave no doubt that the chief object of the pyramid was to support a temple; the discovery of a tomb with human remains may indicate that it served also for burial purposes. These temples have disappeared along with the palaces and private houses, and scarcely a building remains to remind us of the condition of the city as'it was seen by the Spaniards. The principle monuments of Mexico, the Calendar Stone, the so- called Sacrificial Stone, and the Idol, called Teoyaomiqui, were all dug up in the Plaza, where the great Teocalli is supposed to have stood, and where they were doubtless thrown down, and buried from the sight of the natives at the time of the conquest." There are, however, localities not far from the city, which retain a few vestiges and remains of the ancient temples. Among them may be mentioned the city which, at the time of the conquest, stood out boldly in the midst of the waters of the lake, and were connected with the central city, and the shores, by the famous causeway or dyke over which the Span- iards retreated. Among these may be mentioned Tezcuco, the ancient rival of Mexico. This city yet presents traces of her aboriginal archi- tectural structures. In the southern part are the foundations of several large pyramids. Tylor found traces of two large Teocallis. These Teocallis were common in Mexico and suggest the 325 PRIMITIVE TEMPLES IN THE OLD WORLD, cruel practices of the Aztecs, They were furnished with sac- rificial stones and were places in which human sacrifices were offered to the sun. In these sacrifices the victim was stretched upon the stone and his heart torn out and offered to the sun, but his body was hurled down the steps of the pyramid and afterward devoured by the people. On the contrary, the temples of the Mayas of Central America were furnished with tablets and sculptured figures which were suggestive only of peaceable scenes, and a mild and kindly religion. We may say of these temples that they differed from those of the old world, though the pyramid seems to have served as the foundations for all. An illustration of this will be seen in the cut, which represents the dif- ferent forms o f temples in the Eastern continent the Egyptian, the Assyrian, the Thi- betan and Scan- dinavian, all of which were of pyramidal style. There were, to be sure, shrines in Babylonia, some of them situated high up in the sides of the rocks, with columns and figures, and inscriptions in front of them; others, on the sum- mit of pyramids or towers. There were shrines among the rock cut temples of India, and the most of them contained im- ages of the personal divinities, those of Brahma, Siva, Vishnu and Indra. In China, shrines are often found in the Pagodas and are surrounded by a court which is filled with images. Such shrines are at present very common in all parts of the world, in India, China, and America; and the supposition is, that they were survivals from pre-historic times, but origi- nated in the rectangular house, which, because, it was a home became very sacred. In Mexico and Central America there were temples which were rectangular in shape, and were placed upon the summit of circular or oblong pyramids, and were reached by stair-ways placed upon the four sides of the pyra- mids, every part of them being symbolic of the nature powers the sky, the four parts of the compass, and the earth. They were called caracols, and were very sacred. It is not known from what source they were derived, but a supposition is, that they were the survivals of the primitive hut. In favor of this is the fact that the figure of a hut is often seen sculptured on the doorways of the palaces and temples, with the image of the divinity seated inside the door, and a manitou face above the door, conveying the idea that it represented the primitive 326 shrine, which was in itself the survival of the still earlier hut or house. Such circular structures are found at Mayapan, at Copan and at Chichen-Itza, and everywhere retaining the same shape. Thecaracolor round tower of Chichen-Itza has been described by Mr.W. H. Holnies. It is upon the summit of a pyramid and consists of two stories, one above the other, with a central col- umn or core, seven feet in diameter, with annular galleries five feet wide, connected by winding stairs, also supporting but- tresses in the walls, the whole finished with heavy cornices. VI. This leads us to a view of the temple, as a shrine, and especially as a shrine situated on the summit of a pyramid. It will be understood that there were no such temples in Egypt, which was the land of the pyramid, for whatever shrines there were there, were situated either in caves hewn out of the rocks, or in the chambers in front of the mastabas or tombs, or in the interior of the columnar temples, and never upon the summit of pyramids. ^m. .LL_llLJI)UI-